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Rg content.xmlTechnical Writing at LBCCTechnical Writing at LBCCWill FlemingLinn-Benton Community CollegeAlbany, OregonTechnical Writing at LBCC by Will Fleming is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.CC-BY (except where otherwise noted)ContentsIntroductionCH 1: What is Technical Communication?1.1 Characteristics of Technical Communication1.2 The Importance of Effective Communication1.3 Ethics in Technical Communication1.4 Ethics Example: Shuttle Challenger1.5 "Digital Footprints: Public Writing and Social Identities"1.6 Netiquette: Guidelines for Online PostingsCH 2: Audience & Purpose2.1 Writing Purposes & Rhetorical Situation2.2 Understanding and Assessing Audience2.3 Tailoring to Reader Types2.4 Audience Profile Sheet2.5 Needs Assessment Template2.6 Cultural Understanding2.7 Culturally Sensitive Terminology2.8 Appreciating Different Cultures2.9 Determining Appropriate Levels of TechnicalityCH 3: Design & Visuals3.1 Document Design3.2 Using Visuals3.3 Using Tables3.4 Using Charts & Graphs3.5 Using Lists3.6 Web Design Basics3.7 Infographic ExampleCH 4: Workplace Writing4.1 Writing Effective Emails4.2 Memos4.3 Business Letters (General)4.4 Business Letter Types4.5 Cover Letters4.6 Resumes4.7 Resume Sections & Types4.8 Establishing Your Professional Self4.9 Job Search StrategiesCH 5: Collaboration5.1 Collaborative Writing5.2 Successful Collaboration5.3 Ineffective Collaborative Writing5.4 Meeting DocumentsCH 6: Research & Information Literacy6.1 Information Literacy6.2 Performing Research6.3 Using Your Research6.4 Citation & Documentation Basics6.5 Avoiding PlagiarismCH 7: Technical Reports7.1 Instructions & Processes7.2 Technical Descriptions7.3 Proposals7.4 Technical Reports7.5 Report Introductions7.6 Progress Reports7.7 Feasibility Reports7.8 Additional Report TypesCH 8: Grammar & Style8.1 Communicating with Precision8.2 Conciseness8.3 Sentence Structure8.4 Tone8.5 Emphasis & Subordination8.6 Active vs. Passive Voice8.7 Parallel Construction8.8 Using Verbs Effectively8.9 Basic Self-Editing Strategies8.10 Punctuation: Commas8.11 Punctuation: Possession8.12 Punctuation, Grammar, & Mechanics ResourcesAssignments and ExercisesCH 1 Exercises: Analyzing Technical WritingCH 2 Exercises: Cultural UnderstandingCH 2 Assignment: Cultural ResearchCH 2 Assignment: Revising/TranslatingCH 3 Exercise: Formatting AnalysisCH 3 Assignment: Creating an InfographicCH 4 Assignment: Bad News LetterCH 5 Assignment: Team ProjectCH 6 Assignment: Annotated BibliographyCH 7 Assignment: InstructionsCH 7 Assignment: Technical DescriptionsCH 7 Assignment: ProposalCH 8 Exercise: Clarity & ConcisenessCH 8 Exercise: Sentence TypesIntroductionWelcome to Technical Writing at LBCC, a free Open Education Resource (OER) e-textbook for Writing 227, Technical Writing at Linn-Benton Community College.This textbook is designed to give students an overview of the kinds of writing they’ll be expected to do in upper-level college courses, the workplace, and beyond. The book covers the main elements of technical communication and provides students opportunities to put those elements into practice. It explores how writers locate, create, and deliver technical information. Even if you don’t see yourself becoming a technical writer or having to do much writing for your career, having solid communications skills will still benefit you. Nearly all employers seek one thing in common: candidates who possess strong communications skills. This textbook will help you develop and hone those skills.According to Suzan Last in Technical Writing Essentials, “Every job posting you see will almost certainly ask for candidates with excellent communications skills and the ability to work effectively in teams. The ability to communicate clearly and effectively in written, verbal, visual, and interpersonal contexts is vital for success and advancement in the workplace.” Workplace with notebookFigure IThe following chapters will introduce and define technical writing in more depth, but you might be surprised to know that you use technical documentation on a regular basis. Any time you read printed instructions, technical specifications, or business correspondence, you’re encountering different forms of technical writing. You may have done some technical writing already, such as writing a cover letter or formatting a resume. You may even engage in technical writing on a daily basis if, for example, you communicate with your co-workers, classmates, or instructors via email, forums, blogs, and/or social media platforms.This course and this textbook will provide you instruction and practice in writing documents commonly used in the workplace, such as emails, memos, and letters, as well as employment documents, such as resumes and cover letters. You will also learn about writing descriptions, summaries, instructions, proposals, and various technical reports. You will learn about the importance of audience and purpose in technical communication and how to choose a format and style appropriate for your specific audience and purpose. You will also have an opportunity to work collaboratively with your classmates. According to Cassandra Race in Open Technical Communication, “Today, writing is a more important skill for professionals than ever before. …writing today is not a frill for the few, but an essential skill for the many.” Put simply, good communications skills, particularly in writing, are essential for success in today’s workplace. This textbook’s aim is to help prepare you to succeed.Writing 227 (Technical Writing) along with this textbook introduces students to the types of writing they will encounter in business, industry, the academic world, and government. It examines the rhetorical nature of writing and asks students to think critically about content, audience, argument and structure. Students will learn how to effectively design documents, present instructions, create proposals and produce technical documents and reports.The course and this textbook will help you become more successful at:Analyzing the rhetorical needs (the needs of your audience in relationship to the document) for college-level evidence-based technical writing assignments;Applying appropriate levels of critical thinking strategies (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation) in written assignments, with an emphasis on technical, evidence-based analysis, reporting, application, and evaluation;Implementing appropriate rhetorical elements and organization (executive summary, introduction, thesis, development and research-based support, visual evidence, conclusion, etc.) in written assignments, with an emphasis on technical evidence-based analysis, reporting, and evaluation assignments;Locating, evaluating, and integrating high-quality information and opinion appropriate for technical evidence-based assignments; andCrafting sentences and paragraphs that communicate their ideas clearly and effectively using words, sentence patterns, and writing conventions to make your writing clear, credible, and precise.PART ICH 1: What is Technical Communication?When you hear the term “technical communication,” what comes to mind? Perhaps you think of scientific reports, specifications, instructions, software documentation, or technical manuals. And you would be correct. However, technical communication is so much more than that.Technical Writing is a genre of non-fiction writing that encompasses not only technical materials such as manuals, instructions, specifications, and software documentation, but it also includes writing produced in day-to-day business operations such as correspondence, proposals, internal communications, media releases, and many kinds of reports. It includes the communication of specialized technical information, whether relating to computers and scientific instruments, or the intricacies of meditation. And because oral and visual presentations are such an important part of professional life, technical communication also encompasses these as well.Put simply, technical communication is the delivery of technical information to readers (or listeners or viewers) in a manner that is adapted to their needs, level of understanding, and background. The Society of Technical Communications (STC) defines technical communication as a broad field that includes any form of communication that is about technical or specialized topics, that uses technology, such as web pages or help files, or that provides instruction about how to do something.This textbook aims to introduce the basic conventions of technical communication, including learning how to take an audience-centered approach to your communications, how to assess your rhetorical situation (purpose, audience, context), and how to use the tools and methods of technical communicators to deliver information to your target audience and achieve your desired results.Some Basic Technical Writing ConventionsLike journalism and scholarly writing, technical writing also has distinct features that readers expect to see in technical documents. These include the use of headings to organize information into coherent sections, the use of lists to present information concisely, the use of figures and tables to present data and information visually, and the use of visual design (white space, bullet points, etc.) to enhance readability (these topics will be covered more fully in Chapter 3: Design & Visuals). These conventions are connected to the main purposes of technical writing (see Table 1.1).TABLE 1.1 Some typical technical writing conventions (P.A.L.E.S.):TABLE 1.1 P.A.L.E.S.CRITERIATECHNICAL WRITINGPurposeTo communicate technical and specialized information in a clear, accessible, usable manner to people who need to use it to make decisions, perform processes, or support company goals.AudienceVaried, but can include fellow employees such as subordinates, colleagues, managers, and executives, as well as clients and other stakeholders, the general public, and even the legal system.LanguageConcise, clear, plain, and direct language; may include specialized terminology; typically uses short sentences and paragraphs; uses active voice; makes purpose immediately clear. Tone should be business/professional, varying between formal and informal; typically objective and neutral; ideas are evidence- and data-driven.EvidenceIdeas are evidence-driven and claims are well-supported using reasoning, quoted facts and statistics, examples, explanations and background information (where needed), visual evidence, and specific information.StructureClearly structured with reader in mind: use short sentences and paragraphs and provide clear transitions and structural cues (headings and sub-headings) to help the reader move through the document. Order of information should be logical; introductions and conclusions should be reader-centered.For more information on using P.A.L.E.S., see the Prezi slideshow here. Check out this video on technical writing from Oregon State University Technical Writing faculty: A video element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can watch it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=22 Additional Resources“Introduction to Technical Writing.” Open Technical Communication. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"What is Technical Writing." Technical Writing Essentials.[License: CC: BY-SA 4.0]Chapter 1.1 Characteristics of Technical CommunicationSome Common Characteristics of Technical WritingFocused on audience: Technical and workplace documents address a specific audience. The audience may be an individual or a group, and it may or may not be known to the writer. While there is always a primary audience addressed, there may be a secondary audience. Thus, an understanding of the reader or user of a technical document is important.Rhetorical, persuasive, purposeful, and problem-oriented: Technical communication is all about helping the reader or user of a document solve a problem or compel others to act or do. For example, the syllabus of your calculus class informs the students what is expected of them; the university’s web site provides information to potential students about how to apply or to current students about where to seek assistance. Identification of a specific purpose and a particular audience are the first two steps of technical writing.Professional: Technical communication reflects the values, goals, and culture of the organization and as such, creates and maintains the public image of the organization. Look back at your university’s web site to see what image it conveys, or consider the United States Government. In 2010, the Plain Writing Act was enacted to promote clear government communication that the public can understand and use. The Act calls for writing that is clear, concise, and well-organized. For additional information, check out this resource on Plain Language.Design Centered: Technical communication uses elements of document design such as visuals, graphics, typography, color, and spacing to make a document interesting, attractive, usable, and comprehensible. While some documents may be totally in print, many more use images such as charts, photographs, and illustrations to enhance readability and understanding and simplify complex information.Research and Technology Oriented: Because of workplace demands, technical and workplace writing is often created in collaboration with others through a network of experts and designers and depends on sound research practices to ensure that information provided is correct, accurate, and complete.Ethical: Lastly, technical communication is ethical. All workplace writers have ethical obligations, many of which are closely linked to legal obligations that include liability laws, copyright laws, contract laws, and trademark laws. You’ll learn more about these in a later chapter on ethics.What Standards Should I Observe to Make my Writing Successful?Good question! As a member of an organization or team, even as a student, you want to produce the absolute best writing you can. Here are the standards you must follow and some tips to help you. If you keep these in mind as you work through your learning in this text, hooray for you! You get the great writer award! You will also have a tremendous advantage in the workplace if your communication and design skills meet these standards.First and most important, your writing must be honest. Your trustworthiness in communication reflects not only on you personally but also on your organization, company, or discipline.Your writing has to be clear so that your reader can get from it the information you intended. Strive to make sure that you have expressed exactly what you mean, and have not left room for incorrect interpretations.Next, good writing is accurate. Do your homework and make sure you have your facts right. There is no excuse for presenting incorrect information.Also make sure you have all the facts, as your writing must also be complete. Have you included everything that your reader needs?Be sure to be concise. Your audience has neither time nor patience for excessive verbiage, so simplify and cut any clutter. Good writing is always concise writing.Your document should be visually attractive and easy to navigate. Readers are less likely to be moved by a document that is not carefully designed and professional. The following is a video by Dawn Davenport, a technical writing manager of a Fortune 500 company, who discusses what technical writing is and some of the characteristics she looks for in hiring technical writers: Thumbnail for the embedded element "Dawn Davenport - what do you look for in technical writers?"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=20 Additional Resources“Problem-Solving Approach to Communications Tasks” from Technical Writing Essentials“Writing Processes” from Technical Writing EssentialsCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONHuntsman, Sherena. "What is Technical Writing." An Introduction to Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]Davenport, Dawn. "What do you look for in technical writers?" Video. YouTube.com.Chapter 1.2 The Importance of Effective CommunicationCommunication is Key to Your SuccessToday, writing is a more important skill for professionals than ever before. The National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges (2004) says that writing today is an essential skill for the professional. It goes on to state that much of what is important in American public and economic life depends on strong written and oral communication skills. A survey by the Workforce Solutions group at St. Louis Community College asserts many employers are concerned at the large number of college graduates applying for jobs who lack communication and interpersonal skills (White, 2013).Good communication skills, particularly in writing, are essential if you are going to succeed in the workplace. The working world depends on written communication because within modern organizations, almost every action is documented in writing in some form, including written correspondence (emails, letters, memos), slideshow presentations, technical reports, proposals, and other formal reports. It’s crucial that your writing is clear, concise, accurate, and grammatically correct. A Harvard Business Review article says: “If you think an apostrophe was one of the 12 disciples of Jesus, you will never work for me. If you scatter commas into a sentence with all the discrimination of a shotgun, you might make it to the foyer before we politely escort you from the building. I have a zero tolerance to grammar mistakes that make people look stupid” (Wiens).Technical communication is the process of making and sharing ideas and information in the workplace as well as the set of applications such as letters, emails, instructions, reports, proposals, websites, and blogs that comprise the documents you write. Specifically, technical writing involves communicating complex information to a specific audience who will use it to accomplish some goal or task in a manner that is accurate, useful, and clear. Whether you write an email to your professor or supervisor, develop a presentation or report, design a sales flyer, or create a webpage, you are a technical communicator.Technical communication can be thought of as a problem-solving activity in which individuals may address the following questions:What is the situation?What are some possible communication strategies?What is the best course of action?What is the best way to design the chosen message?What is the best way to deliver the message?In this book, we will examine this problem-solving process and help you learn to apply it in the kinds of situations you are likely to encounter over the course of your career. Communication Street SignFigure 1.2Communication Influences Your ThinkingWe all share a fundamental drive to communicate. Communication can be defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning. You share meaning in what you say and how you say it, both in oral and written forms. If you could not communicate, what would life be like? A series of never-ending frustrations? Not being able to ask for what you need or even to understand the needs of others?Being unable to communicate might even mean losing a part of yourself, for you communicate your self-concept—your sense of self and awareness of who you are—in many ways. Do you like to write? Do you find it easy to make a phone call to a stranger or to speak to a room full of people? Perhaps someone told you that you don’t speak clearly or your grammar needs improvement. Does that make you more or less likely to want to communicate? For some, it may be a positive challenge, while for others it may be discouraging. But in all cases, your ability to communicate is central to your self-concept.Take a look at your clothes. What are the brands you are wearing? What do you think they say about you? Do you feel that certain styles of shoes, jewelry, tattoos, music, or even automobiles express who you are? Part of your self-concept may be that you express yourself through texting, or through writing longer documents like essays and research papers, or through the way you speak.On the other side of the coin, your communications skills help you to understand others—not just their words, but also their tone of voice, their nonverbal gestures, or the format of their written documents provide you with clues about who they are and what their values and priorities may be. Active listening and reading are also part of being a successful communicator.Communication Influences How You LearnWhen you were an infant, you learned to talk over a period of many months. When you got older, you didn’t learn to ride a bike, drive a car, or even text a message on your cell phone in one brief moment. You need to begin the process of improving your speaking and writing with the frame of mind that it will require effort, persistence, and self-correction.You learn to speak in public by first having conversations, then by answering questions and expressing your opinions in class, and finally by preparing and delivering a “stand-up” speech. Similarly, you learn to write by first learning to read, then by writing and learning to think critically. Your speaking and writing are reflections of your thoughts, experience, and education. Part of that combination is your level of experience listening to other speakers, reading documents and styles of writing, and studying formats similar to what you aim to produce.As you study business communication, you may receive suggestions for improvement and clarification from speakers and writers more experienced than yourself. Take their suggestions as challenges to improve; don’t give up when your first speech or first draft does not communicate the message you intend. Stick with it until you get it right. Your success in communicating is a skill that applies to almost every field of work, and it makes a difference in your relationships with others.Remember, luck is simply a combination of preparation and timing. You want to be prepared to communicate well when given the opportunity. Each time you do a good job, your success will bring more success.Communication Represents You and Your EmployerYou want to make a good first impression on your friends and family, instructors, and employer. They all want you to convey a positive image, as it reflects on them. In your career, you will represent your business or company in spoken and written form. Your professionalism and attention to detail will reflect positively on you and set you up for success.In both oral and written situations, you will benefit from having the ability to communicate clearly. These are skills you will use for the rest of your life. Positive improvements in these skills will have a positive impact on your relationships, your prospects for employment, and your ability to make a difference in the world.Good Communication Skills are Desired by Business and IndustryOral and written communication proficiency is consistently ranked in the top ten desirable skills by employer surveys year after year. In fact, high-powered business executives sometimes hire consultants to coach them in sharpening their communication skills. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, the following are the top five personal qualities or skills potential employers seek:Communication skills (verbal and written)Strong work ethicTeamwork skills (works well with others, group communication)InitiativeAnalytical skillsKnowing this, you can see that one way for you to be successful and increase your promotion potential is to increase your abilities to speak and write effectively.An individual with excellent communication skills is an asset to every organization. No matter what career you plan to pursue, learning to express yourself professionally in speech and in writing will help you get there. Additional Resources“What is the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)?” from the ADA“The Many Contexts of Communicating Technical Information” from OER Services’ Lumen Technical WritingCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Why Is It Important to Communicate Well?" Business Communication for Success.[License: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0]Chapter 1.3 Ethics in Technical CommunicationFigure 1.3Ethics is one of the most important topics in technical communication. When you can communicate clearly and effectively, and when it is your task to help others to understand an object, a process, or a procedure, it is your responsibility to do so in an ethical fashion.Ethics refers to the choices we make that affect others for good or ill. Ethics can also be defined as a set of agreed upon rules (sometimes explicit but often implied) put forth by a company or organization.As technical communicators, we’re sometimes forced to make difficult ethical choices—from something as seemingly innocuous as “borrowing” another writer’s or researcher’s language or findings and not giving them proper credit (we call that plagiarism), to leaving out crucial findings in a study that shows the harmful effects a household cleaning product can have on small children. And while we’d like to think that we would make the right decision when faced with an ethical dilemma, it isn’t always that simple.At some point we may be asked to write or communicate something that isn’t exactly or completely true, or we may be asked to not say something that we know is true. What do we do in those situations? Should I write what my supervisor wants me to write even though I know it’s wrong? What if someone gets hurt because of something we’ve done or not done, and where do I draw the line?Ultimately, we must think about our audience and ask whether we are truly acting in their best interest. Also, ask yourself if you’re willing to take responsibility, both publicly and privately, for what you have written or said? Will you stand behind your message?As technical communicators, we should always strive to:Not falsify data or state as truth something we know to be false Not deliberately misrepresent facts or information Distinguish between fact and opinion (this is especially important in today’s world)Not assume that what an “expert” has said is the truth (experts can make mistakes too—and some even lie!)Avoid language that attempts to evade responsibility (using passive voice, for example: “Mistakes were made.”)Avoid using language that misleads readers (avoid abstract wording, euphemisms, or jargon, such as legal, technical, and/or bureaucratic)Uselayout/design/visualsto help readers better understand the message (rather than to mislead, deceive, or distract readers)Not violate anyone’s rightsAct in our audience’s best interest.As with any ethical issue or moral dilemma, there is usually a variety of opinions based upon people’s politics, personalities, and purposes. From a rhetorical perspective, as with any other technical document, keeping your communications ethical can be achieved by assessing your purpose and considering your audience, language, evidence, and structure (see P.A.L.E.S).Ethics for Technical Writers It is useful to think of ethics as the “appropriate” methods for actions and relating to others in a given environment. As a technical communicator, you will create many documents throughout your professional career. Some may be simple and straightforward, while others may be difficult and involve questionable objectives. Overall, there are a few basic tenets to adhere to whenever you are writing a professional document:DON’T MISLEAD: Do not write something that could cause the reader to believe something that isn’t true. This can be done by lying, misrepresenting facts, or manipulating numbers to favor your opinion and objectives. You cannot leave out numbers that show you’re behind or over-budget on a project, no matter how well it may work once it is completed. Facts are facts, and they must be represented as such. Be cautious when using figures, charts and tables, making sure they are not misleading. While this may seem obvious, when the pressure is on and there are deadlines to meet, taking shortcuts and stretching the truth are all-too common.Plagiarism is a form of misleading readers. Plagiarizing is misrepresenting the source or facts, most commonly when you claim the ideas you are writing about are yours. When you are writing and performing research, make sure you are citing the sources of your information and giving credit to all the necessary researchers. At no time is it acceptable to rearrange information in order to attempt to indicate that the writer is the source of someone else’s idea or to indicate that the writer read a report that included information he/she cited, when the primary source of the information was cited in another report. All sources must be referenced accurately in the text and cited on a reference page.This rule also extends beyond writing to what is referred to as intellectual property. Intellectual property includes the following:Patents – Items whose credit for creation is protectedTrademarks – Company names (WalMart), logos (the McDonald’s M), or slogans (“Melts in your mouth, not in your hands”)Copyright law – Items whose distribution is protected by law (books, movies, or software)None of the above items can be used without proper recognition of or approval from the appropriate company or individual involved.DON’T MANIPULATE: If you are a professional communicator, it is understood that you have at least a decent ability to write persuasively, even if your first persuasive document was your resume. You have an ethical obligation to not use your ability to persuade people to do what is not in their best interest. It is unethical to persuade readers to make a decision that benefits yourself or your company and not them. Most times, people try to manipulate others to receive some type of reward or gain.To avoid using misleading or manipulating words and phrases, it is important to be open to alternative viewpoints. In preparing any type of persuasive writing, you will come across conflicting viewpoints, so being aware of other views should not be hard. Keep your readers’ ideas and goals in mind and consider what may lie behind their concerns. Discussing several opinions and ideas on a given subject will make you appear more persuasive (and more credible!) and prevent you from appearing biased.DON’T STEREOTYPE: Most stereotyping takes place subconsciously now since workplaces are careful to not openly discriminate. It is something we may not even be aware we are doing, so it is always a good idea to have a peer or coworker proofread your documents to make sure you have not made any assumptions or included anything that may be discriminatory. For more information, check out the article from the Purdue OWL on “Stereotypes and Biased Languages.” For more information on avoiding stereotypes and using gender-inclusive language, see the Tech Whirl article “Gender-neutral Technical Writing.” As you put together professional documents and begin writing in the workplace, it is important to understand your ethical responsibilities as a technical communicator. Technical writers have a responsibility to their readers and their employers to follow ethics when writing reports. Technical writers must use words that demonstrate valid appeals to reason and avoid emotional words and phrases that appeal to basic emotion instead of justifiable reasoning. In addition, technical writers must use valid references to support ideas and strategies. Technical writers must also use accurate numbers to report data, avoiding charts and tables that skew data. Using any type of fallacies in technical writing is unethical and could result in dire consequences (see the “Space Shuttle Challenger“and the “Behind the Lion Air Crash” articles as examples). Ethics of LanguageSometimes the very words and phrasing technical communicators choose can result in unethical practices. Consider the following sentence:The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide. How might this sentence be considered unethical? If we look at it carefully, we see that the main point (or main clause) is simply: The prosecutor argued that the defendant… was guilty of homicide. Rather than starting the paragraph with that sentence, note how the writer has chosen instead to break it up by using a list of parenthetical points about the defendant (he was at the scene of the crime, he had a strong revenge motive, and he had access to the murder weapon), which in this case works to subordinate (or de-emphasize) the main point. By the time the reader reaches the sentence’s point, which is only that the prosecutor argued that the defendant was guilty of homicide, they have likely formed an impression of the defendant’s assumed guilt.We can make this sentence more ethically responsible by simply putting the main clause up front and then following it with the three supporting points:The prosecutor argued that the defendant was guilty of homicide. According to the prosecutor, the defendant was at the scene of the crime, had a strong revenge motive, and had access to the murder weapon.Even though it essentially says the same thing, the arrangement of information in this example creates a more ethical approach to the sentence: it allows readers to draw their own conclusions about the defendant’s alleged guilt. It also follows a logical and recognizable structure of stating the main point first and then following it with reasons, examples, and/or other forms of evidence.*To see an example of this lesson in the classroom, watch Will Fleming’s video on ethics: Thumbnail for the embedded element "Will's Ethics video classroom lesson"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=346 *While this is just a brief introduction to the much wider and more complex field of ethics, as a technical communicator you should remember that what we write and say affects others; therefore, we have a responsibility to our audience, to ourselves, and to the companies and organizations we represent to be honest, fair and ethical. Watch the following video, “Appropriate Language in Technical Writing” from Tamara Powell, who explains, among other things, how language becomes an ethical concern if it is imprecise or disrespectful: Thumbnail for the embedded element "Appropriate Language in Technical Writing"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=346 Additional Resources“Research Ethics” from WritingCommons.org“Introduction to Ethics.” Open Technical Communication CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Ethics and Technical Communication." Lumen Technical Writing. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0]"Ethics in Technical Communication." Open Technical Communication. [License: CC BY 4.0]Powell, Tamara. "Appropriate Language in Technical Writing." Video. YouTube.com. Chapter 1.4 Ethics Example: Shuttle ChallengerFaulty Communication and Real Consequencesby Tamara Powell, Open Technical CommunicationLet’s move to a real example of an ethical situation in technical communication.In 1986, the spaceship Challenger exploded. What you may not know is that a failure of communication was partially responsible for that disaster. There was an “O-ring problem,” or “the failure of a rubber seal in the solid rocket booster” with regard to the shuttle’s construction (Winsor 336).Figure 1.4 Space Shuttle ChallengerFrom early 1984 until July 1985, the O-ring problems were noticed but not taken seriously. Or dismissed. On July 22, 1985, MIT engineer Roger Boisjoly sent a memo to R.K. Lund, who was MIT’s Vice President of Engineering. In the memo, Boisjoly stated that the O-ring problem was serious, and concluded, “It is my honest and very real fear that if we do not take immediate action… to solve the problem… then we stand in jeopardy of losing a flight along with all the launch pad facilities” (Winsor 341).MIT engineer Brian Russell wrote an August 9 letter in response to Boisjoly’s memo. Russell’s letter stated the facts very plainly. For example, he writes, “If the primary seal were to fail from… 330-660 milliseconds the chance of the second seal holding is small. This is a direct result of the O-ring’s slow response compared to the metal case segments as the joint rotates” (Winsor 343).Russell’s memo does not provide any interpretation of the situation, and as such, “did not communicate its intent [as] is shown by the fact that the people who read it were uncertain about what it meant” (343). The important information in the Russell memo, which was quoted above, was buried deep in the letter after such reassurances as “MIT has no reason to suspect that the primary seal would ever fail after pressure equilibrium is reached” (343). While it might seem prudent in the face of bad news to report “just the facts,” if lives are at stake, it is important to communicate clearly. Do not hide or bury the information that there is a problem. Make a clear recommendation to solve the problem, if appropriate and possible. Make clear the perceived consequences if the problem is not dealt with. Of course, no one wants to be wrong or to be perceived as overly dramatic. But at the same time, ethical communication is clear and appropriately detailed so as to prevent disasters such as the Challenger explosion. The Challenger launch was delayed because of the O-ring problem, but on January 28, 1986, the shuttle launched. And exploded.Of course, no one wants to be the bearer of bad news. And no one wants to point the finger. We all are concerned about how we are perceived by others. And we don’t want to jeopardize our position within a company or organization. Also, we might be asked by someone above us to “fudge the data” a little bit in order to keep a grant or contract. Our working relationships or even our jobs might be on the line. Perhaps a grant might not get funded if certain data are not reported. Or perhaps our company won’t get a contract if we don’t promise that our construction plan can hold the number of cars the client desires. When the pressure is on, the consequences may not seem so dire. But as Kant reminds us, if we don’t wish others to lie about the maximum amount of cars that can use the parking deck safely while we are in the parking deck, then we certainly should not do it, either. Additional Resources“Communication Failures – Shuttle Challenger,” Dorothy Winsor’s detailed account of the Challenger disaster“Behind the Lion Air Crash,” a New York Times article about another disaster based on faulty communication CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONPowell, Tamara. "Introduction to Ethics." Open Technical Communication. [License: CC BY 4.0]"Space Shuttle Challenger." Photograph. Public Domain/Wikimedia CommonsChapter 11.5 "Digital Footprints: Public Writing and Social Identities"by Cassandra Branham & Danielle FarrarMark Zuckerberg claimed in a 2010 interview that we all only have “one identity” (as cited in Mainwaring, 2010). But as we have witnessed social networking sites (SNSs) set up shop across vastly different communities for vastly different purposes, it has become clear that Zuckerberg cannot be right. While there may be similarities found in an individual’s Facebook, LinkedIn, and Ravelry profiles, the differing target audiences, interfaces, and SNS purposes make it easy for an individual to create and express a plurality of social identities.Though the concept of social identity is not new, social networking and new media technologies have extended our understanding of social identities. Furthermore, writing plays a significant role in the various online spaces we use to create our individualized digital footprints, that is, the digital trail of data that we leave behind when interacting in or with online technologies Whether we write on Facebook to share with friends or families or on LinkedIn to connect with other professionals, the act of public writing should be executed with thought and critical consideration. With employers regularly looking to SNSs to tell them whether or not to hire prospective employees, it is crucial for individuals to be aware of not only what their social identities reveal about themselves but also how this information can be interpreted. A 2011 survey of hiring professionals reveals that 91% of employers do active screening of potential employees through social network sites, and 76% of the time they screen through Facebook, 48% through LinkedIn, and 53% with Twitter (Swallow, 2011). Additionally, “In June 2013, a nationwide survey by CareerBuilder found that more than two in five hiring managers (43 percent) who vetted applicants online did not hire an applicant based on information found online” (Jodka, 2013). Research shows that employers are intently looking at prospective employees’ social identities, but even if what they discover is not necessarily bad, employers may misinterpret what they find.Likewise, a study on online relationships between employers and employees points out that “companies that screen applicants via social media may misunderstand online behavior, causing them to eliminate good candidates” (Ollier-Malaterre, Rothbard, & Berg, 2013, p. 648; Jodka, 2013). Hiring managers may misinterpret information found online because this information is often decontextualized. It is already clear that maintaining privacy in online spaces is highly difficult, if at all possible, to effectively manage. Thus, when hiring managers or other people in positions of power access digitally archived information (as in a Facebook timeline or Tumblr feed), this information is not contextualized for the viewer/reader, so they interpret that information in accordance with their own experiences. Because this information is not “tailored to the particular relationship or situation, [. . .] its original context and meaning may be skewed” (Ollier-Malaterre, Rothbard, & Berg, 2013, p. 648).Despite the fact that public writing has become popular in the creation and performance of social identities, some people think little about what they write online. It is clear that poor choices in public writing influence employers in their hiring decisions. As this infographic shows, decisions to not hire have been made because prospective employees “posted inappropriate comments,” “demonstrated poor communication skills,” or “made discriminatory comments,” among doing other things (Swallow, 2011).Employers scrutinize social identities for information related to their applicants. But employers are not the only ones using SNS as vetting tools. Bill Greenwood draws attention to the fact that “21% [of the 243] college and universities surveyed stated that they research and recruit potential students on social networking sites” (2009, p. 1). Then, when thinking about what digital footprints you want to leave behind, your choices when writing publicly should be carefully designed and executed.Some public writing spaces on which students are active include the following:Learning Management Systems (LMSs), such as Blackboard and CanvasFacebookTwitterLinkedInAcadenua.eduBlogging sites (e.g., WordPress, Blogger, or Tumblr)Discussion forums or wikisThe approach to public writing and the creation of social identities is no different than traditional approaches to writing: the writer should be aware of his or her audience, the publication venue (e.g., a newspaper, online blog, or academic journal), and purpose (i.e., why am I writing this?). When an individual creates a digital footprint (or regularly updates it), he or she needs to be fully aware of these same things. However, regardless of these differences in SNSs, information posted is generally made available to the public, and “private” information can be accessed if an employer wants it.With the rapidly growing number of SNSs, Internet privacy has become a contested area, and more and more SNSs are offering levels of privacy. Private or password-protected blogs have become more common, and some sites like Google+ and Facebook have made it possible for you to tailor and share information with specific groups of people. Furthermore, LMS blogs like those on Blackboard and Canvas are heavily secured sites, and what you write publicly in these spaces will only be visible to your instructor and classmates. In this way, Blackboard and Canvas writing are semi-public. The advantage to using the Blackboard and Canvas blog function is that while they work like other blog spaces, they provide more privacy.Similarly, professional SNSs like LinkedIn and Academia.edu have gained popularity. The goal of these sites is to professionally network and share ideas, documents, or articles specific to professional identities. LinkedIn’s interface resembles a digitized version of a résumé or CV where users can list their educational and professional experience in addition to professionally relevant skills. Academia.edu is the academic version of LinkedIn and allows people working in academia to list their research interests and upload publications and current works-in-progress, as well as network similarly to LinkedIn.Public Writing EtiquetteMany of us have sent a text message, email, or Facebook message that unintentionally offended someone because digital writing disallows the reader access to social cues, such as bodily and facial expressions and vocal tone. Before undertaking any type of digital writing, a writer should be aware of the way readers may perceive his or her words by taking precautions to avoid sounding offensive. These precautions are especially important when considering digital footprints and social identities because of the longevity of information posted on the Internet: some online writing spaces continue to exist years after the original posting date. When writing publicly, always ask yourself if your words reflect the person you want to be in ten, or even twenty, years. Even if you write something that you later delete, you should be aware that your posts can often be retrieved by archiving sites such as www.archive.org. Be aware of Internet etiquette and norms—especially those particular to individual online writing spaces—and writing with those norms in mind will help you avoid publishing something online that you may regret and a troublesome digital footprint. Some general norms regarding Internet etiquette include:Respect the community. Interact with members of the online community in question in a way that reflects the treatment you would expect to receive. In other words, be nice.Listen to others. When someone presents an opinion that is different from your own, make an effort to understand that person’s perspective on the topic. Resist the urge to immediately tell someone she is wrong simply because her opinion differs from yours. Remember that many employers made the decision not to hire because a prospective employee may have made personal comments that the employer interpreted as objectionable.Be accountable for your actions. The perceived anonymity of online interactions causes some users to feel comfortable writing things they would not say in a face-to-face situation. Take responsibility for your actions and never write something online that you would not feel comfortable saying in person (Brantner, 2011). The Internet Protection Act, which requires web administrators to eliminate anonymous postings, is aimed at increasing accountability in online interactions.Therefore, while there are many benefits to public writing, students must do so responsibly. Consider, for example, whether or not a specific form of electronic discourse (txt spk, colloquial language, Internet jargon, etc.) is a viable and effective form of writing for a particular online forum. Remember that different target audiences prefer different forms of written expression, which is the benefit to having several social identities. Also, be sure not to include any material that would be considered unacceptable in the space in which you are composing. This does not mean that you cannot express your opinions within your own writing or in response to others, but you should express your opinions in a caring way that shows respect for those opinions that differ from your own.Public Writing in PracticeNow that you have read about digital footprints and the potential negative implications of public writing in digital spaces, let’s practice applying what you’ve learned to two scenarios that you may have already encountered within Facebook and Twitter.Scenario 1: Imagine that you are perusing your Facebook page around the time of an upcoming presidential election. You see that someone in your network has posted a comment in support of her favorite candidate, but you notice that the content of her post is biased and, in your opinion, misinformed. You are upset by the content of this post, and you aren’t sure how to proceed. Which of the following actions do you perform and why? Think about the potential implications of each action.Unfriend this person.Hide this person from your newsfeed.Ignore this post and move on with your day.Comment on this person’s post.Send this person a private message.Other.Scenario 2: Imagine that you are on Twitter, reading through tweets that contain hashtags associated with trending topics. One of the trending topics deals with a recent news story that has gained international attention and you come across a tweet that uses racial epithets to describe the persons involved in the case. While you agree with the content of the tweet, you don’t agree with the language used to describe those involved in the case. Which of the following actions do you perform, and why? Think about the potential implications of each action.Favorite it.Retweet it.Do nothing.Write your own tweet.Other.ConclusionWhen publishing online, be sure that you are respecting yourself, the members of your online community, others who may read your posts, and the writing space itself. Even though you create your own digital footprints and social identities, “Social media profiles [. . .] are not a reflection of one’s identity, as Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg wants us to believe, but are part and parcel of a power struggle between users, employers/employees and platform owners to steer online information and behavior” (van Dijck 212). Remember that identities are created both inwardly and outwardly: while you maintain your own understanding of who you are, as identity research explains, your identities are also created by how others perceive and interpret you. In short, you should always strive to represent yourself professionally when publicly writing to critically control your digital footprints.ExercisesOption 1: Visit your Facebook (or other social media platform) profile page and locate a post, composed or shared by you, that you think might be potentially upsetting to either existing members of your social network or to secondary connections who might see your post. Write a short paragraph describing your initial intentions when composing or sharing the post. Additionally, reflect on how members of your audience might have interpreted your post in a way that you did not intend.Option 2: Visit Twitter and examine the current trending topics. Within one of the trending topics, locate a tweet that you find offensive or that you think could be offensive to certain audiences. Write a short paragraphs describing your interpretation of the initial intentions of the tweeter. Additionally, revise the tweet to be more appropriate for Twitter’s audience, and justify your choices. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONBranham, Cassandra and Farrar, Danielle. "Digital Footprints." WritingCommons.org. [License: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0]REFERENCESBrantner, E. (2011). The 11 rules of social media etiquette. Digital Labz. Retrieved July 15, 2014 from http://www.digitallabz.comvan Dijck, J. (2013). “You have one identity”: Performing the self on Facebook and LinkedIn. Media, Culture and Society, 35(2), 199-215.Greenwood, B. (2009, Sept.). Facebook: The next great vetting tool? Information Today, 26(8).Jodka, S. H. (2013, Sept.). The dos and don’ts of conducting a legal, yet helpful, social media background screen. Law Practice Today. Retrieved July 14, 2014 from http:www.americanbar.orgMainwaring, S. (2010, May 6). Is Facebook really the one with the identity crisis? Retrieved July 15, 2014 from http://www.wefirstbranding.comOllier-Malaterre, A., Rothbard, N. P., & Berg, J. M. (2013). When worlds collide in cyberspace: How boundary work in online social networks impacts professional relationships. Academy of Management Review, 38(4), 645-669.Swallow, E. (2011, Oct. 23). How recruiters use social networks to screen candidates. Retrieved July, 14 2014 from http://www.mashable.comChapter 1.6 Netiquette: Guidelines for Online PostingsGuidelines for Online Postings Following these guidelines for public writing can help you avoid embarrassment later:Know your ContextIntroduce yourself.Avoid assumptions about your readers. Remember that culture influences communication style and practices.Familiarize yourself with policies on Acceptable Use of IT Resources at your organization (for example, see Central Oregon’s acceptable use policy).Remember the humanRemember there is a person behind the words. Ask for clarification before making judgement.Check your tone before you publish.Respond to people using their names.Remember that culture and even gender can play a part in how people communicate.Remain authentic and expect the same of others.Remember that people may not reply immediately. People participate in different ways, some just by reading the communication rather than jumping into it.Avoid jokes and sarcasm; they often don’t translate well to the online environment.Recognize that public writing is permanentBe judicious. What you say online is difficult to retract later.Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.Agree on ground rules for text communication (formal or informal; seek clarification whenever needed, etc) if you are working collaboratively.Avoid flaming by researching before reactingAccept and forgive mistakes.Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.Seek clarification before reacting.Ask your supervisor for guidance.*Respect privacy and original ideasQuote the original author if you are responding to a specific point made by someone else.Ask the author of an email for permission before forwarding the communication. Additional Resources“Email Etiquette.” Purdue OWL.“Technical Communication Etiquette” by Theresa Pojuner, Managementhelp.org. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONThis chapter was created by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon Community Collegefrom Communicating Online: Netiquette by UBC Centre for Teaching, Learning and Technology [License: CC: BY-SA 4.0]PART IICH 2: Audience & PurposeAudienceIn technical communication, writers, companies, and organizations all analyze their audiences. Analyzing an audience means thinking about who they are, what they already know about the subject and what they need explained, how they’ll use the information you present, and how they feel about the subject. Are they interested in the topic? Are they receptive to new ideas? Are they uneducated or misinformed about a particular subject? As you plan your document, you think about your audience so that you can:appeal to their needs and interests,make the information easy for them to understand, andpresent the information in the most effective format (we’ll discuss formatting and design in the next chapter).In addition, as a technical communicator, you must also assess what you want from your audience. What do you hope your document will achieve? What action(s) do you want them to take? How do you want them to feel after reading your document? Analyzing your audience and understanding your aims will help inform your purpose, which is closely linked with audience.PurposeWhenever you write, some clear purpose should guide your efforts. If you don’t know why you’re writing, there’s a good chance that your reader won’t either. Fulfilling an assignment doesn’t qualify as a real writing purpose, although it may well be what sends you to your desk. An authentic purpose, however, requires you to answer this question: What do I want this piece of writing to do for both my reader and me? Knowing your reason, or purpose, for writing a particular document is essential to its success.The following sections will discuss both general and specific purposes, as well as the importance of understanding the rhetorical situation. Additional Resources“Exigence” – further reading on rhetorical strategies from Justin Jory, OpenEnglish @ SLCC)Chapter 2.1 Writing Purposes & Rhetorical SituationBefore drafting any piece of writing, from personal essays to research papers, you should explore what you want your readers to feel, think, say, or do about your topic. Your writing should help your readers understand a concept, adopt a particular belief or point of view, or carry out a task.General Writing PurposesThe following are four general writing purposes, two or more of which are usually combined for greater effect:To Inform – Presenting information is one of the most common writing purposes. In academic writing situations, students often write papers to demonstrate their mastery of the material. Journalistic writing is the most common form of informative writing, but informing readers can have its place in every writing situation. For example, in narrating her experience of a childhood vacation, a writer may also work toward informing her readers about the beauty of a particular place.To Persuade – Persuasion is another common writing purpose. We have strong opinions on many issues, and sometimes our writing seeks to defend those views and/or convince the reader of the superiority of our position. Persuasion can take many forms, from writing to elected officials about the need for a new traffic light to an academic essay that defends the need for the death penalty in the U.S., but its aim is always to persuade. Personal essays also sometimes work toward persuasion; writers often illustrate their points through the use of narrative structures or examples.To Express Yourself – Self-expression, or self-exploration, can be the sole purpose of some writing situations, but it can also work to further establish the writer’s presence in a piece or to illustrate a larger point. For example, a student writing about his experience with drug addiction may use that experience to make a larger point about the need for more drug treatment options.To Entertain – Some writing merely entertains, while some writing couples entertainment with a more serious purpose. Sometimes a lighthearted approach can help your reader absorb dull or difficult material, while other times humor provides an opportunity to point out the shortcomings of people, ideas, or institutions by poking fun at them.Specific Writing PurposesBesides having one or more general purposes, each piece of writing has its own specific purpose—exactly what you want readers to come away with. For example, consider the differences between a paper that outlines how to change your car’s oil and one that discusses the reasons why you should change your oil. Each has its own specific purpose even though the topics are similar. Having a specific purpose in mind helps you define your audience and select the appropriate details, language, and approach that best suits them. It also helps keep you from getting off track.In defining your specific purpose, it’s helpful to think in terms of verbs. Is your purpose to communicate or to convince? Table 2.1 shows a few examples:TABLE 2.1 VerbsCOMMUNICATING VERBSCONVINCING VERBSDefineAssessDescribeEvaluateExplainForecastIllustrateProposeOutlineRecommendSummarizeRequestUnderstanding the Rhetorical SituationIt is common knowledge in the workplace that no one really wants to read what you write, and even if they want to or have to read it, they will likely not read all of it. So how do you get your reader to understand what you need quickly and efficiently? Start by doing a detailed Needs Assessment—make sure you understand the “rhetorical situation.” Before you begin drafting a document, determine the needs of your rhetorical situation.The “rhetorical situation” is a term used to describe the components of any situation in which you may want to communicate, whether in written or oral form. To define a “rhetorical situation,” ask yourself this question: “Who is talking to whom about what, how, and why?” *See Chapter One: What is…? or view the PALES slideshow on Prezi.WRITER refers to you, the writer/creator/designer of the communication. It is important to examine your own motivation for writing and any biases, past experiences, and knowledge you bring to the writing situation. These elements will influence how you craft the message, whether positively or negatively. This examination should also include your role within the organization, as well as your position relative to your target audience.AUDIENCE refers to your readers/listeners/viewers/users. Audience analysis is possibly the most critical part of understanding the rhetorical situation (see. Consider Figure 1.3.2 below. Is your audience internal (within your company) or external (such as clients, suppliers, customers, other stakeholders)? Are they lateral to you (at the same position or level), upstream from you (management), or downstream from you (employees, subordinates)? Who is the primary audience? Who are the secondary audiences? These questions, and others, help you to create an understanding of your audience that will help you craft a message that is designed to effectively communicate specifically to them.MESSAGE refers to what information you want to communicate. This is the content of your document. It should be aligned to your purpose and targeted to your audience. While it is important to carefully choose what content your audience needs, it is equally critical to cut out content that your audience does not need or want. It is important to avoid wasting your audience’s time with unnecessary or irrelevant information. Your message should be professional, and expressed in a tone appropriate for the audience, purpose, and context.CONTEXT refers to the situation that creates the need for the writing. In other words, what has happened or needs to happen that creates the need for communication? The context is influenced by timing, location, current events, and culture, which can be organizational or social. Ignoring the context for your communication could result in awkward situations, or possibly offensive ones. It will almost certainly impact your ability to clearly convey your message to your audience.Figure 2.1 is a visual representation of the rhetorical situation:Diagram depicting the relationship between writer, purpose, audience, message, context & cultureFigure 2.1 How Writers and Readers InteractWriters and readers interact in unique ways. In all cases, writing is a one-way flow of information. Therefore, writers must consider and include all of their readers’ needs. Every reader is different, but an effective writer must anticipate what will be most useful to the audience. Additionally, the world is extremely diverse. Some readers may be more relaxed or open-minded than others. For this reason, writers must learn to be conscientious in their writing to ensure they won’t discourage or offend any of their readers. If a reader is offended, any decision made will likely not be made in the writer’s favor. Effective writing eliminates unnecessary pieces of information and ensures a concise document.When writing a document you must start with who your audience is and what they need to know. It’s also important to take any cultural differences into consideration. Additional Resources“The Rhetorical Situation,” a video from Joy Robinson, UAH Technical Writing“Rhetorical Situations” (article from the Purdue OWL)CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Understanding the Rhetorical Situation." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY-SA]"Rhetorical Nature of Technical and Professional Writing." Lumen Technical Writing. [License: CC BY-SA]Chapter 2.2 Understanding and Assessing AudienceWriting can be viewed as being writer-centered or reader-centered. Things like diaries and journals are primarily writer-centered—they are written primarily for the benefit of the writer. Some of your academic writing so far may have been largely writer-centered in demonstrating your knowledge on a particular subject.Technical communication requires that you shift this mindset and write for the benefit of your reader—or that you design the content and structure of your communication for your “user.” This mindset should be informed by having a thorough understanding of your audience. Analyzing audience means thinking about or researching who your readers are, what they already know about your subject, how they feel about it, and how they are going to use the information you present.Watch the following short video from Will Fleming about audience: A video element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can watch it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=57 Use the following guidelines to help determine your audience’s characteristics:Who is my target audience? Is it one reader or many? Are they internal or external readers? Is there a chance someone other than the intended recipient might read the document (co-workers, supervisors, etc.)?What is their perspective on the topic, on me, and on the document I will write? What are my readers expecting to do with the document? Why has it been requested? What is my role and relationship to my readers? What do my readers need to know? What do they already know? What do they NOT need to have explained? How do they feel about your subject matter—are they receptive or potentially hostile to it?What is my goal or purpose in writing to these readers? What am I trying to communicate and/or accomplish? What do I want them to do as a result of reading this document? How can I plan the content to meet my readers’ needs?What is my reader’s goal? Why does my audience want or need to read this document or receive this information? Answering thisGetting a clear understanding of your audience is important in communicating effectively. It enables you to imagine your audience as you write and revise, continually asking yourself whether what you have said will be clear to your audience. Could your content be clearer, simpler, more direct, for example? Are there any demographic or cultural concerns I need to be aware of?Watch the following short video from Penn State technical communication professor Michael Alley on analyzing audience, purpose, and situation: A video element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can watch it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=57 Gathering Audience InformationAs you plan your communication, there are several ways to begin gathering information about your audience:Ask yourself what you already know about your audience:What are my audience’s demographics (age, education level, geographical location, etc.)?What are my readers’ expectations for this document?How do my readers feel about this issue? Are they receptive to new ideas or might they beHow do my readers feel about me?How will my audience use my document?Research your audience:Reading some general information about your audience is helpful. Many companies and organizations post information about their staff on the organization’s website. In addition, doing a few simple internet searches about your audience may reveal useful information. Also, technical communicators are increasingly using social media to learn about their audience—LinkedIn profiles are especially helpful, for example, but other social media platforms may be useful as well.Interview your audience: Consider preparing a few interview questions that will help elicit information about your readers’ needs and expectations. This can be done in person, by phone, or via email.Perform a needs assessment or audience profile sheet: Using a needs-assessment template or audience profile sheet can also help you reveal information and answer questions about your audience.Additional Resources“Audience Analysis” from David McMurrey’s Online Technical Writing.“Audience Analysis In Technical Writing: How To Get The Facts Right,” Helpauthoringsoftware.com. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Key Concepts." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY]Alley, Michael. "Analyzing Purpose, Audience, and Occasion." Vimeo. Online video. November 2019.Chapter 2.3 Tailoring to Reader TypesAs a technical communicator, part of assessing your audience means taking different readers’ needs into consideration and tailoring your message to meet those needs.Types of AudiencesWhen preparing documents, it is important to remember potential audiences for your work. Awareness of the differences between Intended and Unintended audiences may impact how an author presents or includes information in a document, and may make a difference in the event of a legal issue concerning the document. Also, awareness of a complex audience will ensure that an author’s writing does not exclude any potential readers. You do not want to leave an important figure out if they need to be touched on.Intended vs. Unintended AudienceIntended audiences are best thought of as the people you are initially writing to. It is the audience for which your document is intended. Unintended audiences may be anyone that comes across your writing at any point in time. In a professional setting, its important to be mindful of the unintended audience of any written work. This includes any email, memos or proposals produced in the course of business. In addition to being a good rule of thumb, it is in your best interest legally to remain professional in every document you produce as these documents may be used as evidence in court against either the author or the business from which they originated.Complex AudienceWriting for a complex audience is different from academic writing. In academia, there is a specific audience for most pieces of writing, generally an instructor, teaching assistant, or a fairly small group of peers. In a professional setting, you will often write for a complex audience of people with different backgrounds, specialties, and expectations. With that in mind, avoid using terminology that is too technical so you don’t unintentionally exclude portions of your audience. This can become increasingly difficult when writing for larger and more complex audiences.Tailoring Documents for a Specific AudienceRead “Tailoring Documents,” a handout from the Purdue OWL. Pay particular attention to the two reader types the article compares—skimmers and skeptics. The article focuses on meeting the needs of these two reader types in employment documents (cover and inquiry letters, resumes, etc.), but its advice can be applied to many other types of technical writing, including instructions, technical reports, proposals, and common workplace communications. Additional Resources“How to Tailor Your Content to Reader Profiles,” an article from Contentwriters.comCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Appreciating Technical Communication Audiences." Wikibooks. [License: CC BY SA]Chapter 2.4 Audience Profile SheetUse this Audience Profile Sheet to help you identify characteristics of your audience:Audience Identity and NeedsPrimary reader(s): Secondary reader(s): Relationship: Intended use of document: Prior knowledge about this topic: Additional information needed: Possible questions:1. 2. 3.Audience’s Attitude and PersonalityAttitude toward topic: Possible objections: Probable attitude toward me/this writer: People most affected by this document: Probable reactions to this document: Risk of alienating anyone: Audience’s ExpectationsReason for document: Cultural context: Acceptable length: Material important to this audience: Most useful arrangement of information: Tone: Intended effect on this audience: Due date: Chapter 2.5 Needs Assessment TemplateTable 2.5 is an example of a Needs Assessment Template to help you gather audience information for your technical communication project: TABLE 2.5 Needs Assessment TemplateStatement of Purpose:Why am I creating this document or technical communication? Business Need:What is the business’s or organization’s need for this document? Audience:1. Who is the audience?2. How large is the audience?3. What is their expertise or familiarity with the subject matter?Situation:1. In what context will the audience receive the document (in the office, at home, etc.)? 2. Will your audience be multitasking or distracted? 3. Is your audience likely to be resistant or receptive to your document? 4. What is the best medium for your communication (email, memo, printed letter, etc.)? Purpose:1. What is the document’s primary purpose (to inform, persuade, explain, etc.)? 2. What results do you expect from the communication? 3. What results do the company or organization expect to get from the document? Additional ResourcesPurdue OWL’s Audience Analysis Resource, Purdue OWL.Chapter 2.6 Cultural UnderstandingAs technical writers we often conduct a piece of communication for a given reader or specific audience, but how often do you think about the primary reader’s culture? Would you change the communication if your audience has a different cultural threshold?Challenges to Effective CommunicationThe main barrier in verbal communication is the language, so it’s important, as with all technical writing, to be clear and concise and avoid idioms that could cause misinterpretation of the message or even be offensive to another person.These misconceptions or offenses usually occur in nonverbal communication because even though there are emblematic gestures (gesture of peace, thumb up, etc.) these can mean different things in different cultures and we don’t inherently know the connotation. Another important issue is personal space. In Latin American it is common for conversation to happen with a fairly short distance between people, unlike North American culture, where personal space is of greater importance. A good way to politely establish a comfortable space is with a handshake.Another important factor to consider when implementing effective communication within the organization (internal communication) is that employees must have a clear vision/respect for the way the organization works, a clear description of each job position and what is expected of each employee. To accomplish this, the most important thing is to first ensure that senior managers adequately understand the project goals and expectations. This creates unity and consistency among team members. Similarly it is crucial to 1) train all employees consistently regardless of rank or hierarchical level, 2) encourage teamwork and pride in the outcome of a project, and 3) organize regular staff meetings to enhance communication.Recognizing GeneralizationsUnfortunately, many people live in the misconception that they are empathetic with other cultures when the reality is very different. To better understand our own personal outlook, we must ask ourselves if we’ve used any of these phrases lately or (ever):“People from ____________ country are…”“It has nothing to do with a cultural issue.”“It’s really hard to work with _____________ people because….”By engaging in or stating our own generalizations of people from a country, race or religion, we actively perpetuate or create stereotypes. These are generally extremely negative, and restrict our ability to relate to any individuals outside our own culture.Technical writers must be mindful that being ignorant of others’ customs, values, and habits leads to poor communication and a lack of sensitivity. This causes negative reactions, and even worse, negative consequences. One way to begin understanding our own cultural profile, take Harvard Business Review’s questionnaire “What’s Your Cultural Profile?“Understanding CultureRemember these five important things about culture:It is learned. Geert Hofstede views culture as consisting of mental programs, calling it softwares of the mind, meaning each person “carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime.” Similarly, Peter Senge argues that mental models lock individuals and groups into a specific perception about the world. Like a computer, we are programmed to act or behave in certain ways. The conscious and unconscious learning we undergo, over time, turns into beliefs that we consider to be valid. We then teach each other that these beliefs are cultural norms, and they are then expressed in our daily lives as behaviors and actions.It is shared. Although you may think of yourself as an individual, you share beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, traditions, and assumptions with people who grew up or live in similar cultural backgrounds. It is easier for you to relate to someone who has shared value systems and ways of doing things than someone who does not share the same values. The patterns of culture bind us together and enable us to get along with each other.It is dynamic. Culture is dynamic and thus complex. Culture is fluid rather than static, which means that culture changes every day, in subtle and tangible ways. Because humans communicate and express their cultural systems in a variety of ways, it can be hard to pinpoint exactly what cultural dynamics are at play. It is important to pay attention to the cultural context of a communication to understand the depths of its dynamic properties.It is systemic. In systems theory, systems are interrelated interconnected parts that create a whole. There are patterns of behavior, deeply rooted structural systems, which are beneath the waterline. What we see at the top of the iceberg are the behaviors; we do not see what contributes to those behaviors. To address the system, one must be able to address the underlining patterns. These patterns, because they are deeply embedded in the system, will take up significant effort, time, and resources. Changes to the system are slow and gradual; visible changes may not appear until months, or even years, later.It is symbolic. Symbols are both verbal and nonverbal in form within cultural systems, and they have a unique way of linking human beings to each other. Humans create meaning between symbols and what they represent; as a result, different interpretations of a symbol can occur in different cultural contexts.Developmental Model of Intercultural SensitivityIn good intercultural communication, understanding depends on the ability to perceive, react and accept differences and similarities. The developmental model of intercultural sensitivity by Milton J. Bennett explains this in six stages–three of them ethnocentric, and three of them ethnorelative in Figure 2.6:Figure 2.6The first stage defines ethnocentrism as the attitude or point of view by which the world is analyzed according to the parameters of our own culture. It often involves the belief that one’s own ethnic group is the most important, or that some or all aspects of our culture are superior to those of other cultures. The stages of ethnocentrism are:Denial: recognizing cultural differences perceived by the naked eye (schedules, holidays, food, dress, etc.) but denying deeper intrinsic differences.Defense: criticizing other cultures with negative or derogatory terms as a result of feeling threatened, which leads to negative stereotypes, prejudices and discriminatory attitudes.Minimization: thinking that values and behavior are universal principles and are equal to one’s own.The second stage is ethnorelativism, a learned skill, where a person consciously recognizes values and behaviors as a cultural matter rather than a universal one. The stages of ethno-relativism are:Acceptance: recognizing that cultural differences must be respected in order to improve interactions We may not agree with a specific cultural practice or difference but we respect a co-worker’s values.Adaptation: to be able to change a cultural outlook or behavior, which improves understanding and communication in different cultural contexts.Integration: an effort to integrate different cultural elements and feel comfortable with multi-cultural situations.The concept of developing intercultural sensitivity reflects that our perception is flexible, and we all have the ability to reformulate our sensitivity according to new experiences. Additional Resources“7 Examples of Unconscious Bias in Job Descriptions” a website/blogthat provides examples of unconscious biases in written job descriptions.“Common Cultural Characteristics” from Business Communication for Success discusses the concept of common cultural characteristics with several examples.“Divergent Cultural Characteristics” from Business Communication for Success discusses divergent cultural characteristics with several examples of such characteristics in the culture(s) you identify with.“What is Cultural Sensitivity” an overview of cultural sensitivity from Redshoemovement.com. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Understanding Culture." Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]Estrada, Montserrat Fonesca. "Cultural Sensitivity in the Workplace." Penn State Extension. 7 May, 2015. (used with permission)Chapter 2.7 Culturally Sensitive TerminologyUnderstanding the relationship between culture and language has become a requirement for successful businesses in the developing global economy. Cultural conventions inform language, often creating differences in the content, organizational pattern, presentation of argument, style, and format of business documents. Differences in conventions can lead to readers misinterpreting or failing to understand a message.Given that most businesses work with people from two or more different cultural backgrounds at the same time, it is important to promote effective communication among employees and employers. The main barrier in communication is language. It is therefore important to be clear and concise, use gender-neutral language, and avoid jargon or idioms that could be misinterpreted by or even offensive to another person.Additionally, it’s important for organizations/businesses to establish agreed upon culturally sensitive terminology. The following information comes from Illinois Wesleyan University’s “List of Preferred Terminology” for all of its correspondence:Heritage/EthnicityHyphens are often used in conjunction with “American,” particularly in the cases of Indian-American, Italian-American, Mexican-American, etc.; however, choice should be left to individual or group preference (exception: American Indian, Native American).American Indian – Synonymous with Native American, though choice should be left to individual or group preference. Use specific identification, such as Sioux or Navajo, whenever appropriate.Asian-American – Use to express dual heritage for someone of Asian descent. However, when appropriate, use a more specific identification, such as Japanese-American.Black – The preferred AP style is to use African-American or African American if quoted or as part of an organization’s name. Preference should be left to individuals or groups.Hispanic – Can be used to express the heritage for someone whose ethnic origin is in a Spanish-speaking country. Some prefer the term Latino (masculine) or Latina (feminine). For more specific identification when appropriate, use a hyphenated expression, such as Cuban-American. *Many organizations have adopted the gender-neutral Latinx.Gender-Neutral LanguageTo avoid gender-bias in written materials, gender-neutral terms should be used whenever possible.When appropriate, remove masculine or feminine markers. EXAMPLE: firefighter, police officer, flight attendant, server instead of fireman/woman, policeman/woman, steward/stewardess, or waiter/waitressAvoid using man instead of person. EXAMPLE: Chair or Chairperson instead of Chairman or ChairwomanWhen appropriate, write in the plural to avoid gender specificity. EXAMPLE: “Each student must meet with their instructors.” instead of “Each student must meet with his or her instructors.“When appropriate, write in the second person. EXAMPLE: “Please bring your books to class.” instead of “Each student should bring his/her books to class.SexualityTo avoid sexuality-bias, the preferred term for someone who is either gay or a lesbian is homosexual, though it is acceptable to use either. The preferred term for someone attracted to both men and women is bisexual. The preferred term for some individuals whose self-identified gender diverges from his or her assigned gender is transgender (transgender individuals may identify themselves as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, or asexual). Use transsexual only when referring to an individual who has undergone a sex change operation. However, choice of terminology should be left to individual or group preference.It’s important to keep in mind that, like all language, the language used to describe different LGBTIQ people and by different parts of LGBTIQ communities changes over time and can differ across cultures and generations. There will also be differences in how people individually use or define particular terms. You may also encounter outdated or even offensive terms in medical, psychological or legal contexts.For more information on using gender-inclusive / non-sexist language, see University of Pittsburgh’s “Gender-Inclusive Guidelines.”ReligionsTo avoid religious bias, use the following terms:Use the term multi-denominational to describe a service that covers all Christian denominationsThe term non-denominational typically refers to Christian religions that develop their own specific beliefs, which vary from church to church.The term interfaith refers to services that include two or more religions. Additional Resources“Understanding the Importance of Culture in Global Business,” by Denise Pirrotti Hummel, Oracle.com“Strategies for Effective Cross-Cultural Communication within the Workplace” by Shina Neo, Trainingindustry.com“Cultural Competence” a lesson from the UNC Writing CenterCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Culturally Sensitive Terminology." Illinois Wesleyan University. 2020. (used with permission)Estrada, Montserrat Fonesca. "Cultural Sensitivity in the Workplace." Penn State Extension. 7 May, 2015. (used with permission)Chapter 2.8 Appreciating Different CulturesToday, the majority of workplaces are multicultural. Employees in the workplace are more likely to come from different backgrounds including cultural environments and different parts of the world. The textbook, Technical Communication by Paul V. Anderson, makes a point to emphasize cultural differences. It is important to take into account whom a document will be read by.Fig. 2.8aThe following characteristics show differences between cultures and should be considered by effective writers:Amount of Detail ExpectedHigh-context cultures such as Japan, China, and France provide little details in their writing. A high-context culture is based on fewer, deeper relations with people; there are many unspoken social rules and understandings within the culture. People in these cultures expect readers to have enough knowledge about the communication before they begin reading. In areas such as instructions, for example, it is assumed that readers have enough background knowledge or experience that there is no need to explain different tools used or walk the reader through any steps. People in low-context cultures such as the United States, Great Britain, and Germany assume readers know very little before they begin reading. Low-context cultures have a greater number of surface-level relations; rules are more explicitly defined so others know how to behave. People in low-context cultures expect detailed writing that explains the entire process. Writers should consider the cultural audience of their writing so that readers are not insulted by an excess or lack of information.Distance Between the Top and Bottom of Organizational HierarchiesMany organizations in the United States and Western Europe have great distances with many layers between top-level management and low-level workers. When the distance is large, writing to employees above and below tends to be more formal. In cultures where companies are more flatly organized, communication between layers tends to be less formal.Individual versus Group OrientationMany Asian and South American cultures are collectivist, meaning people pursue group goals and pay attention to the needs of the group. In individualistic cultures such as the United States and Northern Europe, people are more interested in personal achievement. Writers should know if they are writing to an audience that is “me-oriented” or one that is “we-oriented.”Fig. 2.8b In-person Business CommunicationsThere are several differences that one should be aware of when meeting a colleague with a different cultural background. For instance, some cultures stand very close to each other when talking and some prefer to have distance. Some cultures make eye contact with each other and some find it disrespectful. There are also certain cultures where an employee will not disagree or give feedback to their superior. It is seen as disrespectful. In these cultures, it is usually unacceptable to ask questions.Preference for Direct or Indirect StatementsPeople in the United States and Northern Europe prefer direct communications, while people in Japan and Korea typically prefer indirect communications. When denying a request in the U.S., a writer will typically apologize, but firmly state that request was denied. In Japan, that directness may seem rude. A Japanese writer may instead write that the decision has not yet been made, delaying the answer with the expectation that the requester will not ask again. In Japan, this is viewed as more polite than flatly denying someone; however, in the United States this may give false hope to the requester, and the requester may ask again.Basis of Business Decisions In the United States and Europe, business decisions are typically made objectively with consideration given to cost, feasibility, timeliness, etc. In Arab cultures, business decisions are often made on the basis of personal relationships. Writers should know if a goal-oriented approach is best, or if a more personable communication would be preferred.Interpretation of Images, Gestures, and WordsWords, images, and gestures can mean different things in different cultures. Knowing how images will be interpreted in another culture is crucial before sending documents to unfamiliar audiences. For example, hand gestures are interpreted differently around the world, and graphics showing hands should generally be avoided. Also, religiously affiliated wording can cause offense by readers. “I’ve been blessed to work with you” and comments that lend themselves to religious references should be avoided in the business setting. Fig. 2.8cGaining Knowledge about Intercultural ReadersIt is often difficult to determine who will be reading your documents. It is important to distinguish your audience before writing. When writing to a wide variety of people, knowing their cultural biases, assumptions, and customs are essential. There are a variety of resources online that provide cultural information about countries around the world. Understanding differences reduces the amount of miscommunication when doing global business. As an example, in the United States many times the date is written Month, Day, Year, but in other countries they write a date Day, Month, Year. Knowing this can reduce the confusion of when things are sent, due, and timelines. Learning information about other nationalities helps you relate to your readers as well as prepare you for the future. Readers will appreciate your knowledge about their customs. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Appreciating Different Cultures." Professional and Technical Writing. [License: CC BY-SA] Chapter 2.9 Determining Appropriate Levels of TechnicalityAs a technical communicator, you may be required to communicate highly technical information from the perspective of a trained expert. But not all of your audiences will share your training and background, so you need to be able to adjust the level of technicality in your writing, while still communicating the information accurately.A writing style and vocabulary that is overly simplified might bore an expert-level target audience or cause the writer to lose credibility. An overly complex style might overwhelm a target audience of laypersons, causing the writer’s message to get lost and not achieving the purpose of the communication. Technical communicators must ask:What level of detail does my audience need for how they will use the information?What type of vocabulary will my audience understand and find useful? The chart below describes some of the ways language and communication might change as you speak to various audiences:Audience TypeLanguage CharacteristicsExpert Highly skilled, trained practitioner (e.g. fellow engineer); often the audience for Lab Reports, Progress Reports.Level of detail: Facts and figures need little explanation; may include formulas and equations; measurements and specifications have a higher degree of precision. Vocabulary: Acronyms, technical terms, and jargon used; high level of technicality in the language without needing to define words.Examples: PTFE layers are hydrophobic. Devices finished with tints of black can have zero color saturation. The piece is 2.921 cm long.Informed Persons Familiar, but perhaps not working directly with the technology (e.g. business side); often the audience for R&D Presentations, client-facing progress reports.Level of detail: Technical information is provided, but advanced concepts are explained; application examples or comparison / contrasts often included; might acknowledge audience concerns (e.g. business or financial implications); measurements given, but may be less precise. Vocabulary: Jargon and technical terms include definitions; acronyms more likely to be spelled out or replaced; vocabulary supports understanding of application rather than technical precision.Examples: Fluorocarbon coatings are non-reactive to water. Devices painted gray appear to be muted. The piece is nearly 3 cm long.Laypersons No professional or specialized knowledge (e.g. a general “public” audience); often the audience for websites, press releases, public relations communications.Level of detail: Concise, few specific technical concepts; technically detailed information provided in service of the audience’s needs and goals (e.g. a user manual); measurements provided in common, familiar units. Vocabulary: Simplified language, avoiding unnecessarily complex terms; new concepts and terms are clearly defined and explained; provides commonly recognizable examples and familiar analogies. Examples: Nonstick coatings do not absorb water. Items painted gray appear to be washed out and hard to distinguish. The piece is about 1 inch long. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Understanding Your Audience." Fundamentals of Engineering Technical Communications. [License: CC BY-NC]PART IIICH 3: Design & VisualsVisual elements such as graphs, charts, tables, photographs, diagrams, and maps capture your readers’ attention and help them to understand your ideas more fully. They are like the illustrations that help tell the story. These visuals help to augment your written ideas and simplify complicated textual descriptions. They can help the reader understand a complicated process or visualize trends in the data. The key concept to remember here is that visuals clarify, illustrate, and augment your written text; they are not a replacement for written text, but using them may save you having to add explanations and clarifications. If you have visual elements in your document, they must be based on and supplement your written content. Throwing in “gratuitous graphics” just to decorate or take up space can confuse your reader.It is important to choose the right kind of visual to convey the story you want your reader to understand. If visuals are poorly chosen or poorly designed for the task, they can actually confuse the reader and have negative consequences.Designing Documents to Enhance ReadabilityAll documents have a purpose—to persuade, to inform, to instruct, to entertain—but the foremost purpose of any document is to be read. Choosing effective document design enhances the readability or usability of your document so that your document is more likely to achieve its intended purpose.Choose document design elements that make your document user-friendly for the target audience. Keep in mind that people do not read technical writing for pleasure; they read it because they have to; it’s part of their job or they need information. Your job as the document designer is to make their reading process as easy, clear, useful and efficient as possible by using all the tools at your disposal.Designing a document is like designing anything else: you must define your purpose (the goals and objectives you hope your document achieves), understand your audience (who will read this document and why), and choose design features that will best convey your message, achieve your purpose, and suit your audience.Document DesignDocument design refers to the physical appearance of a document—either in print or online. In technical communication, the goal is typically to convey information—to explain how to do something, describe how something was done, teach something new, or even accept a point of view. Designing your document effectively can help ensure that readers understand how to use it. Your audience sees your document before reading or accessing it; therefore, well-designed documents help readers to navigate smoothly through the information. Conversely, when a reader encounters a poorly-designed document, they may become frustrated and miss important information or they may decide not to read it at all.For print documents, technical communicators usually focus on page design—text size, font type, color, sections with headers, and the placement of text and images on the page.For online documents, some of the same design elements are the same, but there are additional elements to consider, such as navigation bars, headers and footers, search pages, links, and FAQ lists.Document design is the “nuts and bolts” of technical writing. No matter how important the content, if it is not formatted in way that enhances readability, it will likely not receive the attention it deserves.The following sections of this chapter include information on how technical writers use visuals and document design features to optimize readability, including page design and layout elements such as lists, tables, bullet points, and bold text, as well as the use of headings and subheadings.The following video from Gregg Learning, “What You Need to Know About Business Document Design,” provides a good introduction to the elements of basic document design: A video element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can watch it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=70 Additional Resources “Common Page Design,” by David McMurrey and Jonathan Arnett, Open Technical Communication. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Figures and Tables." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY 4.0]"What You Need to Know about Document Design." Uploaded by Gregg Learning, 23 Oct. 2015. YouTube.com. Chapter 3.1 Document DesignDesigning Reader-Centered Pages and DocumentsYou build your communications out of visual elements: the dark marks of your words, sentences, and paragraphs against the light background of the page, as well as your drawings and graphs and tables. Your readers see the visual design of these elements before they read and understand your message. And what they see has a powerful effect on the success of your communications, on its usability and persuasiveness.Here are ways that good design enhances usability.Good design helps readers understand your information.Good page design helps readers locate information quickly.Good design helps readers notice highly important content.Here are some ways good design affects readers’ attitudes, thereby increasing a communication’s persuasiveness.Good design encourages readers to feel good about the communication itself.Good design encourages readers to feel good about the communication’s subject matter.A Reader-Centered Approach to DesignBecause page design can have such a significant impact on your communication’s usability and persuasiveness, you should approach design in the same reader-centered manner that you use when drafting text and graphics. Think continuously about your readers, including who they are, what they want from your communication, and the context in which they will be reading.Design Elements of a CommunicationIt is helpful to think about the building blocks of a page design in the way that professional graphic designers do. When they look at a page, they see six basic elements:Text: Paragraphs and sentences.Headings and titles: Labels for sections of your communication.Graphics: Drawings, tables, photographs, and so on — including their captions.White space: Blank areas.Headers and footers: The items, such as page numbers, that occur at the top or bottom of each page in a multipage document.Physical features: These include paper, which may take many shapes and sizes, and bindings, which come in many forms.In Figure 3.1.1 below, notice how your eye is drawn to the blue header and the boxed elements. In these spaces, you can highlight the important parts of your message: Figure 3.1.1Document FormattingMost academic and workplace documents are created using Microsoft Office products (Word, Excel, PowerPoint) or Google Docs (G-Suite). These are generally considered industry standards, so it is important that you learn to use them effectively to create professional workplace documents.Table 3.1 provides some general specifications for many types of technical writing documents: TABLE 3.1 Document FormattingMARGINSUse 1″ margins on all sides (use 2″ when binding) Justify your left margin only; don’t fully justify your paragraphs, as this can result in odd spacingFONTSHeadings: Sans serif, such as Arial or CalibriBody text: Serif font, such as Times New Roman or CambriaFONT SIZEHeadings: 12-20 point sans serif fontBody text: 11-12SPACINGSingle-spacing is used for most letters, memos, and emails; 1.5 or double spacing to allow for comments.LENGTHParagraphs tend to be no longer than 10 lines Sentences are usually 15-20 words Figure 3.1.2 is an example of the layout for a standard research-style document: Figure 3.1.2HeadingsOne of the most useful characteristics of technical writing is the use of headings.Headings are the titles and subtitles you see within the actual text of much scientific, technical, and business writing. Headings are like the parts of an outline that have been pasted into the actual pages of the document.Headings are an important feature of technical writing: they alert readers to upcoming topics and subtopics, help readers find their way around in long reports and skip what they are not interested in, and break up long stretches of straight text. They make text easy to navigate and enable the reader to find information they need quickly.Headings are also useful for you, the writer. They keep you organized and focused on the topic. When you begin using headings, your impulse may be to slap in the headings after you’ve written the rough draft. Instead, visualize the headings before you start the rough draft, and plug them in as you write.First-Level Headings & TitlesFirst-level headings are for formal reports with multiple sections (or “chapters”). If you are writing a brief document, start with second-level headings in the body of the document. Follow these guidelines for first-level headings:Make first-levels all-caps.Use Roman numerals with first-levels.Bold the entire heading including the Roman numeral.Make first-levels centered on the page.Start a new page whenever you have a first-level heading.Begin first-levels on the standard first text line of a page.*Note: Short documents, such as those you write for technical writing classes, typically use a centered title and then start with second-level headings in the body of the document.Second-Level HeadingsFollow these guidelines for second-level headings:Make second-levels headline-style caps (every main word).Use bold on second-levels.Do not include outlining apparatus such as “A.” or “B.” or “1.” or “2.” with second-levels.Make second-levels flush left.Leave the equivalent of 2 blank lines between previous text and second-levels.Leave the equivalent of 1 blank line between second-levels and the following text.Third-Level HeadingsFollow these guidelines for third-level headings:Make third-levels sentence-style caps.Use bold for third-levels.Either indent third-levels using standard paragraph indentation, or just start third-levels flush left.Do not make third-levels a grammatical part of sentences that follow.Whether third-levels are indented or not, start all following lines flush left. Don’t indent the entire paragraph.Use the standard spacing between paragraphs for paragraphs that contain third-levels.Figure 3.1.3 is an example of a document with first-, second- and third-level headings: Figure 3.1.3Additional Resources “10 Rules of Document Design,” from VirtuallyUntangled.com“Business Document Design: Basic Principles for the Contemporary Workplace” (comprehensive video from David Taylor on document design, with specific design instructions for Microsoft Word) CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Page Design." Technical and Business Writing. [License: CC BY-NC-ND]"4.4 Headings." Open Technical Communication. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 3.2 Using VisualsVisuals can express ideas or convey information in ways that words sometime can’t. They help to make abstract concepts concrete for readers; therefore, as a technical communicator, it is vital to know how to use visuals to your advantage. Visuals can work to help readers see what something looks like without having to describe it in writing, such as photos, illustrations, and maps. Visuals can also be effective in representing data, such as quantities or financial information, by using visually-pleasing and easy-to-understand tables, charts, and graphs. Technical communicators also use visual tools, such as flowcharts, Gantt charts, diagrams, and infographics, to help readers understand processes or relationships.The principles of good writing—clarity, conciseness, directness, etc.—are equally important to consider when using visuals. Much of what’s been discussed so far about assessing audienceand understanding purpose in writing also applies to using visuals. Clear visuals with appropriate context, such as introducing and discussing the visual, can help readers focus on key elements of your document, presentation, or website. Visuals without appropriate context run the risk of being overlooked or possibly misunderstood; even the best-looking visual will not help if your reader doesn’t understand what it is or why it is there.Watch the following video, “Using Graphics in Technical Documents” by Clinton Lanier, for more information on using visuals effectively: Thumbnail for the embedded element "Using Graphics in Technical Documents"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=627 Choosing VisualsAs previous sections have discussed, technical writers use different language depending on their purpose, audience, and situation. The same holds true for using visuals.EXAMPLE: An automobile owner’s manual contains mostly simple language that most readers can understand; an automobile repair guide, on the other hand, has much more complex language aimed at an audience of specialists. You can think of using visuals in the same way: an automobile owner’s manual would stick to simple diagrams that most people can grasp, while an automobile repair guide would use much more complicated visuals, such as schematics, based on its purpose and an audience of specialists.As you organize your research and draft your project, note areas where a visual representation might be beneficial to readers.Integrating VisualsEach style of visual has its own conventions that you will recognize after you have seen enough of them. In addition, different publications have different style guides that dictate the specific of how to format and integrate visual elements. In general, however, whenever you integrate any kind of visual, you should adhere to five key rules.Give each visual a numbered caption and titleRefer to the caption number within the body text and discuss its contentLabel all units (x and y axes, legends, column box heads, parts of diagrams, etc.)Provide the source of the data and/or visual image if you did not create it yourselfAvoid distorting the data or image.In addition, visual elements should also be surrounded with sufficient passive space (or “white space”) to emphasize the image and enhance its readability. If copying and pasting an image, make sure all elements are clear and the print size is readable. A visual that has been shrunk down to an unreadable size does not help the reader understand your ideas. If at all possible, try to orient the visual image in the same direction as the body text.After carefully choosing your visuals, you should work to strategically integrate them into your text.In your outlining and planning phases of writing, begin by considering the best or most appropriate locations for your visuals. Some writers find it helpful as they draft their work to note areas in their text where a visual might help readers better understand data, ideas, or a concept; once a draft is complete, the writer can then return to these “markers” to help plan the placement of their visuals. Some technical communicators will even create a rough sketch of their visual, while others simply jot down some basic information abut the visual. It’s often helpful, especially when preparing longer documents, to note why using a particular visual in a specific place might be helpful to readers.Guidelines for Integrating VisualsThe following few guidelines will help you effectively integrate, position, and identify your visuals to maintain consistency and uniformity:Make notes: as you research and write, note places in your draft where a visual might help readers better understand your data, ideas, or concepts; once your draft is complete, you can then return to these “markers” to help plan and inform the placement of your visuals. Some technical communicators will even create a rough sketch of their visual, while others simply jot down basic information abut the visual. It’s helpful, especially when preparing longer documents, to briefly note why you thought that a visual in a specific place might be helpful to readers—you can then re-evaluate your choices as you revise.Keep visuals relatively simple: include only the information needed for discussion or illustration; remove any unnecessary labels, boxes, and lines (as well as your notes if you used them).Position text horizontally: any explanatory text for the visual should be placed horizontally with adequate white space around the visual.Make sure that: Units of measurement are specified,Relative sizes are clear, andDistances are explained or indicated where appropriate.Use consistent terminology and formatting for visual documentation: once you choose a format for integrating your visuals into your text, be sure to label them consistently throughout the report, so that readers become familiar with the layout and know what to expect.Define any abbreviations the first time you use them in the text and in figures and tables.Examples of VisualsThe following are examples of the most common visuals used in technical communication:Pie chart (Figure 3.2.1)Horizontal bar graph (Figure 3.2.2)Vertical bar graph (Figure 3.2.3)Line graph (Figure 3.2.4)Flowchart (Figure 3.2.5)Drawing/illustration (Figure 3.2.6)Photograph (Figure 3.2.7)Visual layout of a seating chart (Figure 3.2.8)Generic Pie ChartFigure 3.2.1 Pie Chart Bar Chart of Canadian Population 2011Figure 3.2.2 Horizontal Bar Graph Chart of Number of Humans launched into spaceFigure 3.2.3 Vertical Bar Graph Line Graph with Population of ThoralbyFigure 3.2.4 Line Graph Flow ChartFigure 3.2.5 Flow Chart Drawing/IllustrationFigure 3.2.6 Drawing/Illustration SS ColumbiaFigure 3.2.7 Photograph Orchestra LayoutFigure 3.2.8 Visual Seating LayoutWebsite ExamplesTake a look at how the following websites use visuals to enhance their message:The Nature ConservatoryThe Sierra ClubLBCCAdditional Resources“Figures and Charts” from UNC’s Writing Center“Photos and Illustrations” from Lumen Technical Writing“An Introduction to Visual Thinking,” a slideshow by Ryan Coleman CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Graphics." Online Technical Writing. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0] "Figures and Tables." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY 4.0]"Visuals." Lumen Technical Writing. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0] Chapter 3.3 Using TablesMuch professional, technical writing contains all sorts, tables, pie charts, bar charts, line graphs, flow charts, and so on. Once you get the hang of putting these things into your writing, you should consider yourself obligated to use them whenever the situation would naturally call for them.This page looks at the use of tables; the following page looks at charts and graphs.TablesTables, of course, are those rows and columns of numbers and words, mostly numbers. They permit rapid access to and relatively easy comparison of information. If the data is arranged chronologically (for example, sales figures over a ten-year period), the table can show trends—patterns of rising or falling activity. Of course, tables are not necessarily the most vivid or dramatic means of showing such trends or relationships between data—that’s why we have charts and graphs (discussed in the next section).Uses for tables. The biggest use of tables is for numerical data. Imagine that you are comparing different models of laser printers in terms of physical characteristics, such as height, depth, length, weight, and so on. Perfect for a table.However, don’t get locked into the notion that tables are strictly for numerical data. Whenever you have situations where you discuss several things about which you provide the same categories of detail, you’ve got a possibility for a table. For example, imagine that you were comparing several models of a laser printer: you’d be saying the same category of thing about each printer (its cost, print speed, supply costs, warranty terms, and so on). This is ideal stuff for a table, and it would be mostly words rather than numbers (and in this case, you’d probably want to leave the textual discussion where it is and “re-present” the information in table form.Table format. In its simplest form, a table is a group of rows and columns of data. At the top of each column is a column heading, which defines or identifies the contents of that column (and often it indicates the unit of measurement). On the left edge of the table may be row headings, which define or identify the contents of that row. Things get tricky when rows or columns must be grouped or subdivided. In such cases, you have to create row or column subheadings. This is illustrated here in Table 3: Table 3Title: Traditionally, the title of a table is placed on top of the table or is the first row of the table. If the contents of the table are obvious and there is no need to cross-reference the table from anywhere else in the report, you can omit the title.Style and Formatting Guidelines for Creating TablesKeep the following points in mind when creating and using tables:Refer to the table in the text just preceding the table. Explain the general significance of the data in the table; don’t expect readers to figure it out entirely for themselves.Don’t overwhelm readers with monster 11-column, 30-row tables! Simplify the table data down to just that amount of data that illustrates your point—without of course distorting that data.Don’t put the word or abbreviation for the unit of measurement in every cell of a column. For example, in a column of measurements all in millimeters, don’t put “mm” after every number. Put the abbreviation in parentheses in the column or row heading.Keep words in columns left-justified (although you will occasionally see columns of words all centered).Include column headings over the columns of data. The alignment of column headings to the actual columnar data is variable. If you have a column of two- or three-letter words, you’d probably want to center the column heading over that data, even those it is words not numbers. (Doing so, avoids an odd-looking L-shaped column.)Use a footnote when there is a special point you need to make about one or more of the items in the table instead of clogging up the table with the information. Additional Resources“Almost Everything You Wanted to Know About Making Tables and Figures” (a guide from the Department of Biology at Bates College in Maine) CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONMcMurray, David. "Tables." Online Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 3.4 Using Charts & GraphsCharts and graphs are actually just another way of presenting the same data presented in tables—although a more dramatic and interesting one. At the same time, however, you get less detail or less precision in a chart or graph than you do in the table. Imagine the difference between a table of sales figures for a ten-year period and a line graph for that same data. You get a better sense of the overall trend in the graph but not the precise dollar amount.Formatting Charts and Graphs When you create charts and graphs, keep these requirements in mind (most of these elements are illustrated below):Axis labels—In bar charts and line graphs, don’t forget to indicate what the x and y axes represent. One axis might indicate millions of dollars; the other, five-year segments from 1960 to the present.Keys (legends)—Bar charts, line graphs, and pie charts often use special color, shading, or line style (solid or dashed). Be sure to indicate what these mean; translate them in a key (a box) in some unused place in the chart or graph.Example of a graph. Note that a Figure title is placed beneath the graph.Figure titles — For most charts and graphs, you’ll want to include a title, in many cases, a numbered title. Readers need some way of knowing what they are looking at. And don’t forget to cite the source of any information you borrowed in order to create the graphic. The standard rule for when to number figures or tables is this: if you cross-reference the figure or table elsewhere in the text.Cross-references — Whenever you use a chart or graph, don’t forget to put a cross-reference to it from the related text. With that cross-reference, provide some explanation of what is going on in the graphic, how to interpret it, what its basic trends are, and so on. Example of a column chart. Note that text above and below the chart calls attention to the chart and briefly indicates its significance. Example of a pie chart. Note that the the slices go clockwise from largest to smallest (roughly). General Guidelines for Charts and Graphs Consider the following guidelines when creating and using charts and graphs in your technical documents:Watch out for areas in your text where you discuss lots of numeric data in relation to two or more things—that’s ideal for tables or even charts or graphs.Watch out for areas in your text where you define a series of terms—that’s ideal for tables.Always discuss tables in preceding text. Don’t just throw a table, graph, or chart out there unexplained. Orient readers to it; explain its basic significance.Make sure your tables, charts, and graphs are appropriate to your audience, subject matter, and purpose—don’t zap beginners with massive, highly technical constructions they can’t understand.Use a title unless the table, chart, and graph is very informal. Remember that the title goes just above the table; for charts and graphs, below.Left-align words and phrases in table columns (including the column heading). Right-align numeric data in table columns (but center the column heading).Some believe that it is easier for readers to compare vertically rather than horizontally. If you believe that, format your tables so that your columns contain the information to be compared. For example, if you were comparing cars, you’d have columns for MPG, price, and so on.Indicate the source of tables, charts, and graphs you have borrowed either part of or entirety. This can be done in the title or in a footnote, which is illustrated in this chapter.Indicate identifying measurement values in column or row headings—not in each cell.Cross-reference all tables, charts, and graphs from the preceding text. In the cross-reference, give the number (if it is a formal table with a title), indicate the subject matter of the table, and provide explanatory information as necessary.Additional Resources“Figures and Charts,” a guide from the University of North Carolina’s Writing Center CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONMcMurray, David. "Tables, Charts, Graphs." Online Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 3.5 Using ListsIn technical communication, the goal is typically to convey information, and using lists can be a helpful tool in organizing your document, highlighting particularly important points, and helping to structure your paragraphs and, in some cases, your sentences. Listing can increase the readability of text by simplifying long sentences or paragraphs and adding white space to make reading more pleasant. However, using the wrong kind of list or poorly formatting a list can create confusion rather than enhance readability. Therefore, it is important to understand the various types of lists and how best to use them.General Guidelines for Creating Lists in Technical DocumentsInclude between 2-8 items in a list. You must have at least two items in a list (or it’s not a list; it’s just an item). Avoid having more than 8 items in a list, as too many items can have the reverse effect. If you emphasize too many ideas, you end up emphasizing nothing. NASA recommends no more than 8 steps in an emergency procedure; more than 8 can be overwhelming in a crisis situation.Avoid splitting a list over two pages if possible.Avoid overusing lists. A list should always have explanatory text around it to indicate what this is a list of and why it is needed. A series of lists does not give a reader adequate information and context.Adjust spacing before, after, and within lists to enhance readability. Avoid having a list of information all scrunched up into a dense block of text; this defeats the purpose of enhancing readability.Capitalize the first letter of each list item.Use parallel phrasing/parallel construction for each listed item (for example, keep your verbs the same whenever possible. GOOD: gardening, mowing, and weeding. BAD: gardening, mow the lawn, and weed.List TypesJust as graphs serve a different purpose than photos in a document, different kinds of lists also serve different purposes. Here are five commonly used types of lists:Bullet ListsBullet lists are the most commonly used kind of list. They are effective when:You want to emphasize two or more itemsYou can place the items in any order (no particular order is required)You want to add white space to your document to enhance readability.Bullet list items should generally be short; if you find your bulleted items are longer than a few words, consider using another kind of list, such as a labeled list or a nested list (see below).Numbered ListsUse numbered lists when the order of the listed items is important and ideas must be expressed in chronological order. For example, use a numbered list when you must enumerate a series of steps in instructions, or when you are introducing ideas that will be discussed in a certain order in the following text.A simple numbered list:Unplug machineRemove outer coverRemove inner protective liner…*If you have a list of more than 8 items, consider breaking up the list into stages or phases.PHASE I: Revise your document in the following order: Check formatting for readabilityReview content to ensure the document contains all necessary informationEdit sentence style and structure to ensure ideas are clearly and correctly expressed in a formal and precise mannerProofread for grammar, spelling, punctuation and usage errors.In-sentence ListsUse in-sentence lists when you have a short list of two to four items and want to maintain sentence structure and paragraphing:There are three main reasons why the company failed: their overhead was too high, the demand for product decreased, and they lost some of their funding. Labeled ListsUse labeled lists when the items require some explanation or amplification. This list of lists you’re reading now is an example of a labeled list—note the use of used bold text and section headings to set things apart.Nested ListsUse nested lists when listed items have sub-lists, which is a list(s) within a larger list:There are three main reasons why this happened:Overhead was too highRentUtilitiesPayrollThe demand for product decreasedFewer ordersLess overall interest in the productLost some funding sourcesFunding source example 1Funding source example 2Like headings, the various types of lists are an important feature of technical writing: they help readers understand, remember, and review key points; they help readers follow a sequence of actions or events; and they break up long stretches of straight text. Additional Resources“Bulleted and Numbered Lists.” Online Technical Writing“How and When to Use Lists,” a slideshow on using lists from Technical Writing Essentials CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"3.3 Lists." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 3.6 Web Design BasicsTechnical writers typically don’t need to be experts in website creation or graphic design, but as more and more writing goes digital, having a basic understanding of web design is useful. Designing websites is very similar to designing print documents. The basics are essentially the same: you need to understand space and layout, how to handle fonts and colors, and how to put it all together in a way that delivers your message effectively.Like all effective technical communication, good web design caters to the needs of the audience. Will your audience be seeking information, products to purchase, technical assistance or instructions, entertainment, or some kind of interaction? Knowing your purpose and audience will help inform your design choices—each page or part of your website should have a clear purpose and work to fulfill a specific need for your audience.GoalsBefore designing a website it is important to set goals. As we noted above, ask yourself what purpose the website is serving. Not all sites serve the same purpose. For example, a retail site will have very different goals than a nonprofit site. Some common website goals are:Increasing salesMarketingUpdating informationGenerating leadsDistributing informationGoals, in any setting, are important to business success. By setting goals for one aspect of the business, in this case, the website, it will help in accomplishing other goals of the business, such as:Expanding the audienceConnecting other businesses or other parts of the companyGeneral communicationDesign MessageThe design message is the image the organization wants to portray to the reader. This can also be called the brand. When creating the look of the website you must consider logos, colors, fonts, and images. These must all support the personality of the organization. Note in Figures 3.6.1 and 3.6.2 below how the companies Dropbox and Paypal make use of their brands:Dropbox home page imageFigure 3.6.1 PayPal home page imageFigure 3.6.2Giving web pages a consistent look will help define it as a cohesive website and make it easier to navigate. Since many companies build their workplaces around the “theme” or “brand,” the website should as well. In fact, it is necessary for brand identification, thereby helping the company advance and succeed. A consistent brand and image also help build a company’s value and credibility.Some important points to consider:The brand, whether communicated through the website or the customer service, must be consistentThe brand should be found everywhere—there are no limits to exposure of brandsShort and simple is almost always the best routeYou are the brand and the brand is you. If your brand does not reflect the values and beliefs of the company, it most certainly should not be on your website.AudienceLike all technical communication, knowing your audience will help you to make better decisions when it comes to deciding how your website should look and function (as well as which browsers to support and which new technologies to endorse). Before designing a new website, it would be helpful to perform an audience needs assessment to ascertain users’ demographics, their technical knowledge, as well as browser and device preferences. For example, generally speaking, most younger users prefer to access web content on mobile devices, while some older users may favor accessing content via a traditional computer screen.It’s important to note that putting content on the internet exposes that content to a wider audience, perhaps one beyond your intended audience, so the designer must strive for consistency, clarity, and conciseness.PurposeFiguring out how the site will be used in another important step in website design. Most internet users fall into three categories:those seeking informationthose seeking products or servicesthose seeking entertainmentFor the informational sites, you may want to consider the technology of the user and/or use a more general approach to its design. The same can be said for For the sites of those seeking entertainment, more cutting-edge technology can be used to better the experience of the user when they are accessing your site.As examples, note the differences between these three sites:Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (geared toward providing information)SONY (mainly geared toward entertainment)Zappos (retail)ContentThere are many ways content can be presented, depending on your audience and purpose, but the following are general tips for designing and formatting your web content:Chunking: The average reader does not want to read long passages of text on a computer screen. Chunking the information can help break up long passages of text into shorter and more digestible bits of information that can be read independently from one other.Using color scheme: Don’t mix a lot of colors. It is best to select only a few colors that either complement each other or are appropriate in representing the group for which the website is written, or appropriate for the audience. Also, colors can call attention to elements of importance.Using images: Pictures, or video, can sometimes communicate information much more quickly and clearly than text. It is encouraged to include images where appropriate, but the designer shouldn’t clutter the page, or use gratuitous images, as this can confuse users.Maintaining consistency: Visual appearance has a large effect on how users read and value websites, and consistency is a crucial aspect of web design. Information and user interface should be presented in a consistent manner throughout the page and the entire structure of the site. Logos, page titles, headers, and interface elements such as navigation, buttons, and graphics should all to be consistent. This will ensure the users can access the website without error or confusion.As you compose and create your content, think carefully about the following questions:What is the goal of the website (its purpose)?Who is the website trying to reach (its audience)?How much time to people have to spend reading information on the website?How did individuals reach this website?What is the most important information to the reader?What questions might readers have?What action is the reader supposed to take after reading the website content?Another aspect to consider about website content is how it will be searched within different search engines. Key words are needed throughout your website to make sure that the website is found by people who are looking for specific information. It is important to be specific with words, and use them multiple times, so that search engine robots find the word and place it high on the results list.Creating a Home PageYour home page will be the most visited page on your website. Your home page may not always have what your viewers are looking for, so you should have something that will draw them in and make them want to look further for their information. You have roughly ten seconds to draw your customers into your site, or else they will hit the “back” button and look elsewhere. Your home page should load quickly. The ten seconds you have to draw the customers into your site begins when they click on the link to your site. If it takes five seconds for your site to load, you only have a few seconds left to draw customers in further. Here are some tips to help your site load quicker:Keep media images smallAvoid using ads from external websites on your home page that may slow down the loading time. You cannot control how fast another server will serve its content.Write your HTML in sections so that when the bottom of the page is still loading, your customers can read the top sections of your home page.EXAMPLES: 1. Take a look at Yale University’s School of Art’s homepage. What do you notice about its design? What do find appealing? What improvements could be made?2. Note the homepage below in Figure 3.6.3: The color combination is problematical—the gray and black interspersed with bright red and white isn’t especially easy on the eyes. The page is also too busy by being overcrowded with content, low-resolution pictures, and varying fonts, all of which can be off-putting to users and make the website difficult to navigate. As you look it over, think about what you would change if you were the site’s designer.MGBD Parts & Services homepage imageFigure 3.6.3Another important point about home pages it to never stop modifying them. Reviewing your log files once your website is up and working can help you make your home page more user-friendly. Updating the links or the colors may improve the appeal or ease of use to your site. Remember that everything can be changed, and you don’t have to settle for something if it’s not working.Understanding a few basic web design concepts and being able to know the difference between good and bad design will give you the confidence and skills to begin designing your own websites or revising existing ones. Additional Resources“Does a Technical Writer Need to Understand Web Design?” by Tom Johnson, Idratherbewriting.com“How to Make a Website: Complete Beginner’s Guide” by Colin Newcomer, Wkub.com (a good starting place for people new to website building)“How to Make A Website: The Definitive Guide” by Steve Benjamin, Sitebuilder.com (a comprehensive overview of website building)“Introduction to HTML” by Tiffani Reardon, Open Technical Communication CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Website Design." Technical Writing. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0]Chapter 3.7 Infographic ExampleThe New York Public Library’s (NYPL) 2012 annual report infographic is a stellar example of using select information to build a compelling narrative that communicates the right message to its audience. Two crucial pieces of data (18 million total library visits in 2012 and an increase in total visits of 12 percent from 2008) are featured prominently to tell the story of an organization serving more people than ever in recent history.The New York Public Library’s 2012 annual report infographic, created by Richert SchnorrNYPL emphasizes these two key pieces of data by making them larger than the rest of the text and placing them near the top of the infographic. The additional data included below, including the increase in visitors over time and the distribution of visitors among different locations, provides added context to support the main data points. Additional Resources“The Ultimate Infographic Design Guide” from Venngage.com. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONSchnorr, R. (2012). "NYPL by the Numbers." 2012 Annual Report." NYPL.org. Accessed 22 May, 2019.REFERENCESFriedenthal, Andrew. “4 Steps to Creating Infographics.” Softwareadvice.com. 25 April, 2017. Accessed 7 July, 2020.PART IVCH 4: Workplace WritingThis chapter will examine and discuss several forms and examples of technical communication commonly practiced in the workplace, including emails and memos, and formal letters. This chapter will also look at various types of employment documents, including resumes, inquiry letters, and cover letters.In the following video, “Writing in the Workplace, Pt. 1,” University of California alumni talk about how writing skills learned in college apply to their everyday work and career development: Thumbnail for the embedded element "Writing In the Workplace pt. 1"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=136 CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONMcGraw, Darrin and Knight, Tara, directors. "Writing in the Workplace Pt. 1." UC San Diego. Uploaded by SixthCATatUCSD, 5 June 2009, Youtube.com.Chapter 4.1 Writing Effective EmailsOne of of the most common forms of technical writing that you will encounter is email. Emails, like memos, often communicate smaller amounts of information or requests for information.Now the dominant form of communication in the workplace, emails typically serve as internal communication within an organization. Emails can update policies and procedures, announce meetings or organizational changes, or inform the internal audience as needed. Emails should be brief, concise, readable, and addressed to specific audiences with specific subject lines.Emails can be sent internally or externally within a company or organization. With this form of business communication, writers must take into account the time constraints most readers face as a result of the sheer volume of email they receive—the average office worker gets around 100 emails each day. With that volume of communications, individual messages can sometimes get overlooked. Following the following five few simple rules will help get your emails noticed and acted upon:Don’t Over-CommunicateOne of the biggest sources of stress at work is how many emails people receive. So, before you begin writing an email, ask yourself: “Is this really necessary?”Make good use of subject linesLike news headlines, your email subject lines should grab people’s attention and give them a sense of what the email is about. A well-written subject line delivers specific information without the recipient having to open the email. A blank email subject line is more likely to be overlooked or rejected as “spam,” so be sure to use at least a few well-chosen words in your subject line to indicate what the email is about.Keep messages clear and briefEmails, like traditional business letters, need to be clear and concise. Keep your sentences short and to the point. The body of the email should be direct and informative, and it should contain all pertinent information. Be politeWriters sometimes think that emails can be less formal than traditional letters. But the messages you send are a reflection of your own professionalism, values, and attention to detail, so a certain level of formality is needed. Unless you’re on good terms with someone, avoid informal language, slang, jargon, and inappropriate abbreviations. Emoticons can be useful for clarifying your intent, but it’s best to use them only with people you know well. Close your message with “Regards,” “Sincerely,” or “Best,” depending on the situation. Emails are at times shared with people other than the recipient, so always be polite.ProofreadFinally, before you hit “send,” take a moment to review your email for spelling, grammar, and punctuation mistakes. Your email messages are as much a part of your professional image as the clothes you wear, so it looks bad to send out a message that contains typos. As you proofread, pay careful attention to the length of your email. People are more likely to read short, concise emails than long, rambling ones, so make sure that your emails are as short as possible, without excluding necessary information.Email is familiar to most students and workers, as it has largely replaced print hard copy letters for external (outside the company) correspondence, and in many cases, it has taken the place of memos for internal (within the company) communication. Emails are also used in our personal lives, and in those contexts, it may seem an informal mode of communication. However, business communication requires attention to detail, awareness that your email reflects you and your company, and a professional tone so that it may be forwarded to any third party if needed. Email often serves to exchange information within organizations, but it’s also the preferred means of communicate between businesses and organizations. So while email may have an informal feel, remember that when used for business, it needs to convey professionalism. Never write or send anything that you wouldn’t want read in public or in front of your company’s president.Email can be very useful for messages of various lengths, it is still best to keep email messages fairly brief. As with all technical communication, keeping audience in mind is key to writing effective emails. Figure 4.1 is an example of a standard email: Figure 4.1 Standard Email This Prezi slideshow presentation, “Writing Effective Emails,” provides additional information and examples of email language.The following video, “10 Tips for Writing an Awesome Business Email” from LetThemTalkTV.com: provides some helpful tips for writing successful professional emails: Thumbnail for the embedded element "10 Tips for Writing an AWESOME BUSINESS EMAIL"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=173 Additional Resources“Yes, There Is a Right Way to Write an Email,” an article from TED Ideas“How an Editor Stays at Inbox Zero,” a video from The Atlantic on managing email CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"7.1 Correspondence." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0] "10 Tips for Writing an Awesome Business Email." Uploaded by LetThemTalkTV, 2 Nov. 2009, Youtube.com.Chapter 4.2 MemosA memo (short for memorandum) is a type of document typically used to communicate with others in the same organization. Memos (or memoranda) are generally used for fairly short messages of a page or less, but informal reports of several pages may also employ the memo format. While many workplaces use email (whose format originates in the memorandum—see Figures 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 below) for communication, it is still important for technical writers to know how to properly format and use printed memos.Memo HeadingMemos, like emails, begin with a header block that includes the following:HEADING: Capitalize and make bold the heading—MEMO or MEMORANDUMis sufficient.TO: List the names of the recipients of the memo. If there are several recipients, it’s acceptable to use a group name, such as “All Faculty” or “Hiring Committee Members.”FROM: List the writer’s name(s) (sometimes the job title is also included).DATE: List the date on which the memo is distributed.SUBJECT (RE): Include a subject that functions like a title (specificity is helpful here so that readers can immediately identify the memo’s topic).*Other lines, such as CC (carbon copy) or BCC (blind carbon copy), may be added as needed. Figure 4.2.1 shows a typical header block for an email, while Figure 4.2.2 shows a typical header for a memo; note the similarities between the two: Figure 4.2.1 Email Header Figure 4.2.2 Memo HeaderThe order listed above is the most common memo structure, but the order of items can vary, especially when organizations have their own style preferences for letters and memos. Figure 4.2.3 shows a standard memo layout: Figure 4.2.2 Memo Formatting SampleMemo ContentMemo text uses block letter format, with single-spaced lines, an extra space between paragraphs, and no indentations for new paragraphs. However, if a report using a memo format stretches to a few pages in length, double spacing may be used to improve its readability.Organize the content of your memo so that it answers the following questions for the reader:Opening: Do I have to read this? Why do I have to read this?Details: What do I need to know?Closing: What am I expected to do now?Memos are generally direct and concise. There is no need to start with general introductions before getting to your point. Your readers are usually colleagues within the same organization, and are likely familiar with the context in which you are writing. The subject line and opening sentences of the memo’s message should make it clear to the reader whether they have to read the entire memo and why (if, for example, the memo is informing readers about a parking lot that’s closed on campus that I never use, then I don’t really have to read any further).The middle section of the message should give all of the information and details needed to adequately inform the readers and fulfill the purpose of the memo. Start with the most general information, and then add the more specific facts and details. Make sure there is enough detail to support your purpose, but don’t overwhelm your readers with unnecessary details or information that is already well known to them.The final part of the message is the action, indicating what, if any, action is required or requested of your readers. If you are asking your readers to do something, be as courteous as possible, and try to indicate how this action will also benefit them.For more information, watch the following video, “Writing the Basic Memo,” from Upwrite Press:Thumbnail for the embedded element "The Key Forms of Business Writing: Basic Memo"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=868 *Click here for a sample of a student’s memorandum for a technical report—pay special attention to its layout and how the writer uses helpful subheadings to assist the reader in navigating the document and its information.Additional Resources“Memos” from the Purdue OWL“Memorandums and Letters” from Business Communication for Success CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"7.1 Correspondence." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0] "Memos and Emails." Open Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]"The Key Forms of Business Writing." Uploaded by UpWritePress, 2 Sept. 2009, Youtube.com.Chapter 4.3 Business Letters (General)Writing business letters may be quite different than writing you may have done in the humanities, social sciences, or other academic disciplines. As we’ve discussed, technical writing strives to be clear and concise rather than evocative or creative; it stresses specificity, accuracy, and audience awareness.When you write a business letter, you can assume that your audience has limited time in which to read it and is likely to skim the document in search of its main points. They want to know why you’re writing and what they need to do in response. The sections below provide guidelines for effectively formatting and structuring the standard block-style business letter.Common Components of Business LettersHeading: The heading contains the writer’s address and the date of the letter. The writer’s name is not included; only a date is needed in headings on letterhead stationery.Inside address: The inside address shows the name and address of the recipient of the letter. This information can help prevent confusion at the recipient’s offices. Also, if the recipient has moved, the inside address helps to determine what to do with the letter. In the inside address, include the appropriate title of respect of the recipient and copy the name of the company exactly as that company writes it. When you do have the names of individuals, remember to address them appropriately: Mrs., Ms., Mr., Dr., and so on. If you are not sure what is correct for an individual, try to find out how that individual signs letters or consult the forms-of-address section in a dictionary.Salutation: The salutation directly addresses the recipient of the letter and is followed by a colon (except when a friendly, familiar, sociable tone is intended, in which case a comma is used). Notice that in the simplified letter format, the salutation line is eliminated altogether. If you don’t know whether the recipient is a man or a woman, the traditional practice has been to write “Dear Sir” or “Dear Sirs”–but that’s sexist! To avoid this problem, salutations such as “Dear Sir or Madame,” “Dear Ladies and Gentlemen,” “Dear Friends,” or “Dear People” have been tried–but without much general acceptance. Deleting the salutation line altogether or inserting “To Whom It May Concern” in its place, is not ordinarily a good solution either–it’s impersonal.The best solution is to make a quick, anonymous phone call to the organization and ask for a name; or address the salutation to a department name, committee name, or a position name: “Dear Personnel Department,” “Dear Recruitment Committee,” “Dear Chairperson,” or “Dear Director of Financial Aid,” for example.Subject or reference line: As shown in the order letter, the subject line replaces the salutation or is included with it. The subject line announces the main business of the letter.Body of the letter: The actual message, of course, is contained in the body of the letter–the paragraphs between the salutation and the complimentary close. Strategies for writing the body of the letter are discussed in the section on business-correspondence style.Complimentary close: The “Sincerely yours” element of the business letter is called the complimentary close. Other common ones are “Sincerely yours,” “Cordially,” “Respectfully,” or “Respectfully yours.” You can design your own but be careful not to create florid or wordy ones. Notice that only the first letter is capitalized, and it is always followed by a comma.Signature block: Usually, you type your name four lines below the complimentary close and sign your name in between. If you are a woman and want to make your marital status clear, use Miss, Ms., or Mrs. in parentheses before the typed version of your first name. Whenever possible, include your title or the name of the position you hold just below your name. For example, “Technical writing student,” “Sophomore data processing major,” or “Tarrant County Community College Student” are perfectly acceptable.End notations: Just below the signature block are often several abbreviations or phrases that have important functions.Initials: The initials in all capital letters in the preceding figures are those of the writer or the letter, and the ones in lower case letters just after the colon are those of the typist.Enclosures: To make sure that the recipient knows that items accompany the letter in the same envelope, use such indications as “Enclosure,” “Encl.,” “Enclosures (2).” For example, if you send a resume and writing sample with your application letter, you’d do this: “Encl.: Resume and Writing Sample.” If the enclosure is lost, the recipient will know.Copies: If you send copies of a letter to others, indicate this fact among the end notations also. If, for example, you were upset by a local merchant’s handling of your repair problems and were sending a copy of your letter to the Better Business Bureau, you’d write something like this: “cc: Mr. Raymond Mason, Attorney.”Note the example of a properly formatted block style business letter in Figure 4.3a:Figure 4.3a Letter sampleThe following is another example of a properly formatted business letter: Block Style Letter Sample For more information, watch the following video, “Writing the Basic Business Letter,” from Upwrite Press:Thumbnail for the embedded element "The Key Forms of Business Writing: Basic Letter" A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=240 Formatting Tips for Business LettersUse white space to draw attention to headings. White space helps show what elements on your page are the most important. It’s also easier on readers’ eyes.Add white space between paragraphs. Adding white space between paragraphs and around blocks of text and images makes documents easier to read and navigate; it also helps people understand what they’re reading.Widen the margins. Generally speaking, widening the margins can help readability—sometimes putting less information on the page is less daunting to the reader.Use bullet points when appropriate. Bullet points aren’t appropriate for all information, but they are generally helpful to readers by helping to identify important points in the document.In Figure 4.3b, note the use of the visual elements described above:Figure 4.3b Business Letter SampleGeneral Tips for Writing and Revising Business CorrespondenceKeep the following points in mind when you write and revise your business letters or memos.State the main business, purpose, or subject matter right away. Let the reader know from the very first sentence what your letter is about. Remember that when business people open a letter, their first concern is to know what the letter is about, what its purpose is, and why they must spend their time reading it. Therefore, avoid round-about beginnings. If you are writing to apply for a job, begin with something like this: “I am writing to apply for the position you currently have open….” If you have bad news for someone, you should need not spill all of it in the first sentence. Here is an example of how to avoid negative phrasing: “I am writing in response to your letter of July 24 in which you discuss problems you have had with an electronic spreadsheet purchased from our company.”If you are responding to a letter, identify that letter by its subject and date in the first paragraph or sentence. Busy recipients who write many letters themselves may not remember their letters to you. To avoid problems, identify the date and subject of the letter to which you respond: “I am writing in response to your September 1, 2019 letter in which you describe problems you’ve had with one of our products.” Keep the paragraphs of most business letters short. The paragraphs of business letters tend to be short, some only a sentence long. Business letters are not read the same way as articles, reports, or books. Usually, they are read rapidly. Big, thick, dense paragraphs over ten lines, which require much concentration, may not be read carefully—or read at all.To enable the recipient to read your letters more rapidly and to comprehend and remember the important facts or ideas, create relatively short paragraphs of between three and eight lines long. In business letters, paragraphs that are made up of only a single sentence are common and perfectly acceptable. Throughout this book, you will see examples of single sentence paragraphs commonly used in business letters.Compartmentalize the contents of your letter. When you compartmentalize (also called “chunking”) the contents of a business letter, you place each different segment of the discussion—each different topic of the letter—in its own paragraph. If you were writing a complaint letter concerning problems with the system unit of your personal computer, you might have the following paragraphs:A description of the problems you’ve had with itThe ineffective repair jobs you’ve hadThe compensation you think you deserve and whyStudy each paragraph of your letters for its purpose, content, or function. When you locate a paragraph that does more than one thing, consider splitting it into two paragraphs. If you discover two short separate paragraphs that do the same thing, consider joining them into one.Provide topic indicators at the beginning of paragraphs. Analyze some of the letters you see in this chapter in terms of the contents or purpose of their individual paragraphs. In the first sentence of anybody paragraph of a business letter, try to locate a word or phrase that indicates the topic of that paragraph. If a paragraph discusses your problems with a personal computer, work the word “problems” or the phrase “problems with my personal computer” into the first sentence. Doing this gives recipients a clear sense of the content and purpose of each paragraph. Here is an excerpt before and after topic indicators have been incorporated:Problem: I have worked as an electrician in the Decatur, Illinois, area for about six years. Since 2005 I have been licensed by the city of Decatur as an electrical contractor qualified to undertake commercial and industrial work as well as residential work.Revision: As for my work experience, I have worked as an electrician in the Decatur, Illinois, area for about six years. Since 2005 I have been licensed by the city of Decatur as an electrical contractor qualified to undertake commercial and industrial work as well as residential work.List or itemize whenever possible in a business letter. Listing spreads out the text of the letter, making it easier to pick up the important points rapidly. Lists can be handled in several ways, as explained in the textbook section on lists.Place important information strategically in business letters. Information in the first and last lines of paragraphs tends to be read and remembered more readily. These are high-visibility points. Information buried in the middle of long paragraphs is easily overlooked or forgotten. For example, in application letters which must convince potential employers that you are right for a job, place information on your appealing qualities at the beginning or end of paragraphs for greater emphasis. Place less positive information in less highly visible points. If you have some difficult things to say, a good (and honest) strategy is to de-emphasize by placing them in areas of less emphasis (for more information, see the textbook section on emphasis & subordination. If a job requires three years of experience and you only have one, for example, you could bury this fact in the middle or the lower half of a body paragraph of the cover letter (the following sections of this chapter will discuss job application/cover letters in more detail).Focus on the recipient’s needs, purposes, or interests instead of your own. Avoid a self-centered focus on your own concerns rather than those of the recipient. Even if you must talk about yourself in a business letter a great deal, do so in a way that relates your concerns to those of the recipient. This recipient-oriented style is often called the “you-attitude,” which does not mean using more you’s but making the recipient the main focus of the letter.Avoid pompous, inflated, legal-sounding phrasing. Watch out for puffed-up, important-sounding language. This kind of language may seem business-like at first; it’s actually ridiculous. Of course, such phrasing is apparently necessary in legal documents; but why use it in other writing situations? When you write a business letter, picture yourself as a plain-talking, common-sense, down-to-earth person (but avoid slang). Generally speaking, you should to strive for confidence while avoiding arrogance (see section on tone).*A note on style: Technical writing can vary from a less formal, more conversational style to a more formal, or even legalistic, style found in documents such as contracts and business plans. Writing that is too formal can alienate readers, while overly casual writing can come across as insincere or unprofessional. When writing business letters, as with all writing, you should know your audienceand adopt a style somewhere between formal and conversational will work well for the majority of your memos, emails, and business letters. For more information on style, see Chapter 8: Style.Give your business letter an “action ending” whenever appropriate. An “action-ending” makes clear what the writer of the letter expects the recipient to do and when. Ineffective conclusions to business letters often end with noncommittal statements, such as “Hope to hear from you soon” or “Let me know if I can be of any further assistance.” Instead, specify the action the recipient should take and the schedule for that action. As soon as you approve this plan, I’ll begin contacting sales representatives at once to arrange for purchase and delivery of the notebook computers. May I expect to hear from you within the week? Additional Resources“Writing the Basic Business Letter,” a website resource from Purdue OWL“Types of Business Letters,” a video from Gregg Learning CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"2.1 Business Correspondence." Open Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]"The Key Forms of Business Writing." Uploaded by UpWritePress, 6 Mar. 2009, Youtube.com.Chapter 4.4 Business Letter TypesThere are several types of business letters. This chapter looks at three common examples—inquiry letters, bad news letters, and complaint and adjustment letters. The following chapter(s) will cover employment documents—namely, cover letters and resumes. Inquiry LettersThe inquiry letter (or email) is useful when you need information, advice, names, or directions. Be careful, however, not to ask for too much information or for information that you could easily obtain in some other way—for example, by a quick trip to the library or an internet search.Early in the letter or e-mail, identify the purpose—to obtain help or information (if it’s a solicited communication, information about an advertised product, service, or program).In an unsolicited letter or e-mail, identify who you are and why you need the requested information.In the communication, list questions or information needed in a clear, specific, and easy-to-read format. If you have a number of questions, consider making a questionnaire and including a stamped, self-addressed envelope. If it’s e-mail, just put the questions in the body of the e-mail or attach a separate questionnaire document.In an unsolicited letter or e-mail, try to find some way to compensate the recipient for their trouble. You might, for instance, offer to pay copying and mailing costs, to accept a collect call, to acknowledge the recipient in your report, or to send him or her a copy of your report. In a solicited letter or e-mail, suggest that the recipient send brochures or catalogs.In closing an unsolicited letter or e-mail, express gratitude for any help that the recipient can provide you, acknowledge the inconvenience of your request, but do not thank the recipient “in advance.” In an unsolicited letter or e-mail, tactfully suggest to the recipient will benefit by helping you (for example, through future purchases from the recipient’s company).Job Inquiry LettersJob inquiry letters describe your strengths and express your interest to potential employers. Sending these letters (sometimes called “cold” letters) to the companies or employers you have targeted can help uncover unlisted or upcoming employment opportunities. Keep in mind that these letters are unsolicited, so they should be brief, concise, and direct.Here are 10 tips for writing successful job inquiry letters:State who you are: begin your letter by stating who you are and giving your status or position (student, researcher, job seeker, interested consumer, etc.), and mention how you found out about the individual or entity you are writing to.Get to the point quickly, preferably in the first or second sentence: “I am writing to you today to inquire about any possible technician positions that may be available now or in the near future.”Be courteous: this is an unsolicited inquiry, and you may be imposing on the reader’s time and/or resources.Demonstrate your enthusiasm and energy with language and style appropriate to your field.Use simple and direct wording whenever possible.Appeal to the employer’s self-interest by demonstrating that you have researched the company or organization (many applicants forget this helpful step).Give positive, truthful accounts of your accomplishments and skills that relate to the company or position you’re inquiring about.Request a talk, discussion, or meeting rather than an interview.Keep your letter short, but it should be long enough to thoroughly explain what it is you are inquiring about and what you want the recipient to do in response.Make it easy to respond to your request: consider reminding the recipient that he/she may reply to your request via email.*When the person responds to your employment inquiry, it’s always a good idea to send a quick note of thanks expressing your appreciation.The following document is an annotated sample of a job inquiry letter: JOB INQUIRY LETTER SAMPLEBad News LettersOften, business letters must convey bad news: a broken computer keyboard cannot be replaced, or an individual cannot be hired, for example. Such bad news can be conveyed in a tactful way. Doing so reduces the chances of damaging business relations with the recipient of the bad news. To convey bad news positively, avoid negative words such as unfortunately, cannot, forbid, fail, impossible, refuse, prohibit, restrict, and deny as much as possible.When delivering bad news, use the following items to structure your letter:Buffer/cushion: start with a sincere greeting unrelated to the bad news. If you open with the bad news, you may lose your reader immediately. A buffer sets up the communication and puts the reader into a more receptive frame of mind.Example: “It’s been a pleasure to serve your office supply needs for the last four years.”Explanation: explains the purpose of the communication and provides a brief overview of the situation. Bad news is harder to accept when it isn’t explained, so provide reasons where possible and appropriate. Example: “Due to an error in our inventory tracking, one of the products (the Epson 4400 desktop ink jet printer) from your May 1 order is backordered until May 14.”Apology: include a simple apology if necessary or appropriate.Example: “Please accept our sincere apologies for the oversight.” OR “We apologize for any inconvenience this may have caused you.” OR “I am sorry for the confusion.”Redirect: after delivering the bad news, include a statement that fosters goodwill. If possible, offer a compromise. The redirect can also be used to discuss specific actions that you will take (or have already taken) to remedy the problem. In both examples below, the redirect also includes a soft-sell message (a subtle, low-pressure method of selling, cross-selling, or advertising a product or service).Example: “Please let us know if you would like us to issue you a refund for the Epson 4400 printer or if you would prefer to wait until it becomes available on May 14. If you prefer to wait, we will overnight your printer via FEDEX as soon as they arrive. As a thank you for your continued business, we would like to offer you 20% of of your next purchase as well as free 2-day shipping on any of our products.”Table 4.4 provides an example of how you might structure a bad news message:TABLE 4.4 Bad News Letter StructureBuffer or Cushion (unrelated to bad news)Thank you for your order. We appreciate your interest in our product.Explanation (what happened and why)We are writing to let you know that this product has been unexpectedly popular, with over 10,000 requests on the day you placed your order.Negative News (delivers bad news but also states what they can do)This unexpected increase in demand has resulted in a temporary out-of-stock/backorder situation. We will fulfill your order, received at 11:59 p.m. on 09/09/2009, in the order it was received.Redirect (moves away from the bad news and offers a compromise)We anticipate that your product will ship next Monday. While you wait, we encourage you to consider using the enclosed $5 off coupon toward the purchase of any product in our catalog. We appreciate your business and want you to know that our highest priority is your satisfaction.*NOTE: No amount of strong or fancy writing will make bad news sound good. However, a well-crafted message helps the reader understands and accept the message.Letters of ApologyYou can craft a successful apology letter by:Analyzing your audience:How serious is the issue?How much damage has been done?How valuable is the future relationship?What is the appropriate tone for this message?Paying attention to your content:Offer a sincere apology, but don’t overdo it.Provide an explanation where appropriate, but don’t make excuses or blame others.Offer to make amends or rectify the situation when appropriate.Close by maintaining good will.The following document is an example of two bad news letter examples; the second example is a revision of the first: BAD NEWS LETTER EXAMPLEThe following is a sample assignment/activity in crafting an apology or delivering bad news:BAD NEWS ASSIGNMENT/ACTIVITY SAMPLE Watch the following video from Will Fleming on delivering bad news and making apologies in writing: Thumbnail for the embedded element "Will's Bad News Video"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=250 Complaint LettersA complaint letter requests some sort of compensation for defective or damaged merchandise or for inadequate or delayed services. While many complaints can be made in person, some circumstances require formal business letters. The complaint may be so complex that a phone call cannot effectively resolve the problem; or the writer may prefer the permanence, formality, and seriousness of a business letter. The essential rule in writing a complaint letter is to maintain your poise and diplomacy, no matter how justified your gripe is. Avoid making the recipient an adversary.*NOTE: Complaints by e-mail may not be as effective as those by regular mail, so that option is not included here.Early in the letter, identify the reason you are writing—to register a complaint and to ask for some kind of compensation. Avoid leaping into the details of the problem in the first sentence.Provide a fully detailed narrative or description of the problem. This is the “evidence.”State exactly what compensation you desire, either before or after the discussion of the problem or the reasons for granting the compensation.Explain why your request should be granted. State the reasons why this evidence indicates that your requested should be granted.Suggest why it is in the recipient’s best interest to grant your request; appeal to the recipient’s sense of fairness or desire for continued business, but don’t threaten. Find some way to view the problem as an honest mistake. Don’t imply that the recipient deliberately committed the error or that the company has no concern for the customer. Toward the end of the letter, express confidence that the recipient will grant your request.Adjustment LettersReplies to complaint letters, often called letters of “adjustment,” must be handled carefully when the requested compensation cannot be granted. Refusal of compensation tests your diplomacy and tact as a writer. Here are some suggestions that may help you write either type of adjustment letter:Begin with a reference to the date of the original letter of complaint and to the purpose of your letter. If you deny the request, don’t state the refusal right away unless you can do so tactfully.Express your concern over the writer’s troubles and your appreciation that she or he has written you.If you deny the request, explain the reasons why the request cannot be granted in as cordial and noncombative manner as possible. If you grant the request, don’t sound as if you are doing so in a begrudging way.If you deny the request, try to offer some partial or substitute compensation or offer some friendly advice (to take the sting out of the denial).Conclude the letter cordially, perhaps expressing confidence that you and the writer will continue doing business.Additional Resources“Overview of Business Correspondence.” Open Technical Communication. (an excellent resource for the visual layout of business letters) CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Complaint & Adjustment Letter." Online Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0] "Delivering A Negative News Message." Business Communication for Success. [License: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0]Chapter 4.5 Cover LettersThis chapter focuses on the cover letter (sometimes called an application letter), which typically accompanies your resume in an employment package. In fact, your cover letter is often the potential employer’s first introduction to you.The purpose of the cover letter is to draw a clear connection between the job you are seeking and your qualifications listed on the resume. Put another way, your cover letter should match the requirements of the job with your qualifications, emphasizing how you are right for that job.*NOTE: The cover letter is not simply a lengthier or narrative version of your resume. The cover letter should selectively illustrate how the information contained in the resume is relevant to the position.Common Types of Cover LettersTo begin planning your letter, decide which type of letter you need. This decision is, in part, based on the employers’ requirements and, in part, based on what your background and employment needs are. Here are the two most common cover letter types:Objective letters: This type of letter says very little: it identifies the position being sought, indicates an interest in having an interview, and calls attention to the fact that the resume is attached. It also mentions any other special matters that are not included on the resume, such as dates and times when you are available to come in for an interview. This letter does no salesmanship and is very brief (the true meaning of a “cover” letter.)Highlight letters: This type of letter (the type you would do in most technical writing courses), tries to summarize the key information from the resume, key information that will emphasize how you are a good candidate for the job. In other words, it selects the best information from your resume and summarizes it in the letter—this type of letter is especially designed to make the connection with the specific job.Common Sections in Cover LettersAs for the actual content and organization of the paragraphs within the application letter (specifically for the highlight type of application letter), consider the following common approaches.Introductory paragraph: That first paragraph of the application letter is the most important; it sets everything up—the tone, focus, as well as your most important qualification. A typical problem in the introductory paragraph involves diving directly into your work and educational experience. A better idea is to do some combination of the following in the space of a very short paragraph (some introductory paragraphs are a single sentence): State the purpose of the letter—to apply for an employment opportunity.Indicate the source of your information about the job—a website posting, a newspaper ad, a personal contact, or other.State one attention-getting thing about yourself in relation to the job or to the employer that will cause the reader to want to continue. Main body paragraphs: In the main parts of the application letter, you present your work experience, education, and training—whatever makes that connection between you and the job you are seeking. Remember that this is the most important job you have to do in this letter—to enable the reader to see the match between your qualifications and the requirements for the job.Author Steven Graber in his article “The Basics of A Cover Letter” suggests the following points for developing your cover letter’s body paragraphs:First (Introductory): “State the position for which you’re applying. If you’re responding to an ad or listing, mention the source.”Second: “Indicate what you could contribute to this company and show how your qualifications will benefit them. …discuss how your skills relate to the job’s requirements. Don’t talk about what you can’t do.”Third: “Show how you not only meet but exceed their requirements—why you’re not just an average candidate but a superior one.”Fourth: “Close by saying you look forward to hearing from them” and “… thank them for their consideration. Don’t ask for an interview. Don’t tell them you’ll call them.”Closing: “Keep it simple—‘Sincerely’ followed by a comma suffices.”There are two common ways to present this information:Functional approach: This one presents education in one section, and work experience in the other. If there were military experience, that might go in another section. Whichever of these sections contains your “best stuff” should come first, after the introduction.Thematic approach: This one divides experience and education into groups such as “management,” “technical,” “financial,” and so on and then discusses your work and education related to them in separate paragraphs.Of course, the letter should not be an exhaustive or complete summary of your background—it should highlight just those aspects of your background or experience that make the connection with the job you are seeking.Check out this video, “Tips for Creating a Great Cover Letter,” from GCF Global:Thumbnail for the embedded element "Tips for Creating a Great Cover Letter"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=271 General Guidelines for Writing Successful Cover LettersExplain how/where you learned of the position;Specify what it is you want (to apply for the position, inquire about a summer internship, etc.);Highlight key areas of your education and professional experience (volunteer work counts!);Be as specific as possible, using examples when appropriate;Use language that is professional and polite;Demonstrate your enthusiasm and energy with an appropriate tone;Use simple and direct language whenever possible, using clear subject-verb-structured sentences;Appeal to the employer’s self-interest by showing that you have researched the company or organization;State how you (and perhaps only you) can fulfill their needs, telling them why you’re the best candidate;Give positive, truthful accounts of accomplishments and skills that relate directly to the field or companyStress what you have done rather than what you haven’t and what you do have rather than what you don’t (in other words, don’t apologize for your lack of experience, expertise, or education).Emphasize what you can and will do rather than what you cannot or will not.Highlight what you can do specifically for the company/organization rather than why you want the job.LengthA cover letter can be fairly short (usually a single page, but this is not a rule). It should be long enough to provide a detailed overview of who you are and what you bring to the company.Accentuate the positiveYour cover letters will be more successful if you focus on positive wording rather than negative, simply because most people respond more favorably to positive ideas than to negative ones. Words that affect your reader positively are more likely to produce the response you want. A positive emphasis helps persuade readers and create goodwill.In contrast, negative words may generate resistance and other unfavorable reactions. You should therefore be careful to avoid words with negative connotations. These words either deny—for example, no, do not, refuse, and stop—or convey unhappy or unpleasant associations—for example, unfortunately, unable to, cannot, mistake, problem, error, damage, loss, and failure. Be careful in your cover and/or inquiry letters of saying things like, “I know I do not have the experience or credentials you are looking for in this position…” These kinds of statements focus too much on what you don’t have rather than what you do. Also, don’t call attention to gaps in employment—let that come up in the interview. *NOTE: Just because your resume will be attached, don’t make the all-too-common mistake of thinking that your resume should or will do all the work; if something is important, be sure to discuss it in your cover letter because there’s no guarantee that your reader will even look at your resume. Part of your task in crafting a cover letter is to keep your reader interested and engaged.Cover Letter ExamplesEarly Career Cover Letter SampleLater Career Cover Letter Sample Additional Resources“Cover Letter, Letter of Transmittal” from WritingCommons.org“Crafting Your Cover Letter” from GCFGlobal.orgCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Job Application Letters." Online Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]"Tips for Creating A Great Cover Letter." Uploaded by GCFLearnFree.org, 29 May 2018, Youtube.com.REFERENCESGraber, Steven. "The Basics of A Cover Letter." Strategies for Business and Technical Writing, edited by Kevin Harty, Pearson, 2011. Chapter 4.6 ResumesA resume is a brief document that summarizes your education, employment history, and experiences that are relevant to your qualifications for a particular job for which you are applying. The purpose of a resume (along with your cover letter) is to get an interview. Research has shown than it takes an average of ten interviews to receive one job offer, so your resume needs to be persuasive and perfect.A resume should be easily readable, effectively designed, and adapted to audience expectations. If you are taking a technical writing course, your instructor may be okay with your making up a few details in your resume to represent what you’ll be when you graduate. However, if you’re just starting your college education and have little work experience, why not try using the techniques and suggestions here to create a resume that represents your current skills, abilities, and background? Developing a decent-looking resume based on what you are now is a challenge that you have to deal with at some point—so why not now?Watch Will Fleming’s video for some general resume writing tips:Thumbnail for the embedded element "Will's Resumes Video"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=436 Resumes: An OverviewThe general purpose resume usually contains four sections:Contact infoExperienceEducationHonors, activities, and outreach (optional)The contact information should include:Full nameE-mail addressPermanent address (or campus address if applicable)Phone number(s)Web address/URL (if applicable)The experience section usually includes:Company or organizationLocationPosition titleDates of employment or involvementDescriptions of responsibilities and dutiesThe education section usually includes:Schools you have attended, such as universities and community colleges, as well as professional and technical schools (rarely high schools, unless somehow relevant)Location of school(s)Date of graduation, actual or anticipated (Anticipated graduation June 2022)Degree(s) earned/Majors studiedGrade point average (GPA) (*most experts agree that GPAs should be left off if lower than a 3.0)An honors and activities section might include:Academic awards and scholarshipsMembership in campus, national, or international organizationsLeadership positions held in campus, national, or international organizationsUniversity and community service positionsWork-related awards or honorsDates of awards/dates of involvementVolunteer experienceApprenticeships (if not listed under Experience)For more resume tips, see the following video, “What Should You Include on a Resume?” from GCFLearnFree.org:Thumbnail for the embedded element "What Should You Include on a Resume?"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=436 Resume DesignThere are many, many different ways of designing your resume, but one shared characteristic with all resumes is that they should be easy to read. There is no one right way to write or design a resume. Every person’s background, employment needs, and career objectives are different, which necessitates unique resume designs. The best way to determine your resume’s design is to look at examples of others’ resumes to help you decide your own approach. Keep in mind that every detail, every aspect of your resume should work toward explaining the following: who you are, what your background and expertise are, what the potential employer is looking for, and what your own employment goals are. Figure 4.6.1 shows the basic format for most resumes:Figure 4.6.1*The next page, “Resume Sections & Types,” will discuss resume design in more detail.Resume SamplesTake a look at the following resume examples to give you a sense of the various stylesDiesel MechanicPipe WelderCase Management NurseParalegal (from GCFLearnFree.org)Healthcare Specialist(from ResumeResource.com)Additional ResourcesFrom Writingcommons.org:Computer resume scanningResume formattingWriting the conventional resumeResume designResume formatting consistency CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Resumes." Online Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]"What Should You Include on a Resume?" Uploaded by GCFLearnFree.org, 9 Feb 2019, Youtube.com.Chapter 4.7 Resume Sections & TypesSections in ResumesResumes can be divided into three sections: the heading, the body, and the conclusion. Each of these sections has fairly common contents.Heading. The top third of the resume is the heading. It contains your name, phone numbers, address, and other details such as your occupation, titles, and so on. Some resume writers include the name of their profession, occupation, or field. In some examples, you’ll see writers putting things like “CERTIFIED PHYSICAL THERAPIST” very prominently in the heading. Headings can also contain a goals and objectives subsection and a highlights subsection. These two special subsections are described later.Body. In a one-page resume, the body is the middle portion, taking up a half or more of the total space of the resume. In this section, you present the details of your work, education, and military experience. This information is arranged in reverse chronological order. In the body section, you also include your accomplishments, for example, publications, certifications, equipment you are familiar with, and so on. There are many ways to present this information:You can divide it functionally—into separate sections for work experience and education.You can divide it thematically—into separate sections for the different areas of your experience and education.Conclusion. In the final third or quarter of the resume, you can present other related information on your background. For example, you can list activities, professional associations, memberships, hobbies, and interests. At the bottom of the resume, people often put “REFERENCES AVAILABLE ON REQUEST” and the date of preparation of the resume. At first, you might think that listing non-work and personal information would be totally irrelevant and inappropriate. Actually, it can come in handy—it personalizes you to potential employers and gives you something to chat while you’re waiting for the coffee machine or the elevator. For example, if you mention in your resume that you raise goats, that gives the interviewer something to chat with you about during those moments of otherwise uncomfortable silence.Special Sections in ResumesHere are some ideas for special resume sections, sections that emphasize your goals or qualifications.Highlights, summary section: In the illustration below, you’ll notice the “Highlights” section that occurs just below the heading (the section for name, address, phone number, etc.) and just above the main experience and education sections. This is a popular section in resumes. Resume specialists believe that the eye makes first contact with a page somewhere one-fourth to one-third of the way down the page—not at the very top. If you believe that, then it makes sense to put your very “best stuff” at that point. Therefore, some people list their most important qualifications, their key skills, their key work experience in that space on the page. Actually, this section is useful more for people who have been in their careers for a while. It’s a good way to create one common spot on the resume to list those key qualifications about yourself that may be spread throughout the resume. Otherwise, these key details about yourself are scattered across your various employment and educational experience—in fact, buried in them.Objectives, goals: Also found on some resumes is a section just under the heading in which you describe what your key goals or objectives are or what your key qualifications are. Some resume writers shy away from including a section like this because they fear it may cause certain employers to stop reading, in other words, that it limits their possibilities. A key-qualifications section is similar to a highlights section, but shorter and in paragraph rather than list form.Amplifications: If you have lots of detail about what you know, this approach on page 2 of the resume may work. On the first page of this sample resume, the writer divides the presentation into experience and education sections and takes a chronological approach to each. On the first page, he only provides company names, job titles, dates, and discussion of duties.Objective StatementsThere exists some debate among employment professionals around whether job applicants should include an objective statement at the top of the resume. Some argue that they are no longer necessary and are often filled with buzz words and clichés that no longer hold much meaning, such as “Hardworking team player seeks employment.” These types of statements don’t tell the prospective employer much in the way of specifics about the applicant, and so many experts agree that the objective statement can be left out of a resume.However, other experts argue that resume objectives are crucial to a successful resume. They are a quick introduction to who you are, what you want, and what you bring to the position. A hiring manager at a human resources department for a large company once told me that she won’t even look at resumes that don’t have objective statements, while I have similarly heard many managers say that they usually gloss over the objective statement, if they read it at all.If you do choose to use an objective statement—and the choice is yours—one thing all employment experts and hiring managers agree on is that it should be tailored to the position.What is a resume objective statement?A resume objective is a one or two sentence statement of your goals for employment, usually listed at the top of your resume. An objective can be as simple as stating your desired position—”Seeking a position in the field of accounting leading to managerial responsibilities.”—or it can focus on some of your skills and abilities that are required for the job—“Seeking a marketing position with Sterling Cooper, Inc., where my demonstrated skills in marketing, administration, and sales can be used to increase profitability and promote growth.”A resume objective can explain why you are qualified for the job, even if you do not have a lot of related experience. An objective statement can be particularly helpful when you are changing careers.If you do decide to include an objective statement on your resume, here are a few guidelines to follow:Be specific: The more specific you are about your skills and interest, the better chance you have of being considered for the job you are interested in. As noted above, it is a good idea to tailor your resume objective statement for each job to which you apply. Using a generic objective might lessen your chances of being considered.Use keywords: Include keywords from the job listing in your resume objective. Not only can this increase the chances of your resume getting picked up by a company’s applicant tracking system, but it can also emphasize how your qualifications match the job listing. It’s also sometimes helpful to research the company’s website for keywords that might be useful in your resume objective or your cover letter.Match your objective with the position: Only state career goals that are achievable within the company. For example, if you ultimately want to be a nurse but are applying for an administrative assistant position at a newspaper, you do not need to state this. Focus instead on how you want to grow within that specific company or organization (even if you have aspirations beyond the position or company/organization to which you are applying).Focus on How You Can Add Value: One of the pitfalls of resume objective statements (and of employment packages in general) is that applicants sometimes focus too much on why they want the job or career and not enough on what they bring to the company—how your skills, experience, and knowledge will benefit them. Briefly include any information that highlights your experience, including your years in the industry, your particular skill set, and any other qualifications. Include examples of ways you could add value or even improve the company. For example, you might note that you have five years’ experience managing budgets and how this experience is advantageous to the company.Figure 4.7.2 illustrates the most common format for objective statements on a resume:Figure 4.7.2For more information on objective statements, see the article “Reasons to Replace Your Career Objective” from TopResume.com.For a list of sample resume objective statements, see the following handout: “Samples of Resume Objectives.”Resumes: Types and DesignTo begin planning your resume, decide which type of resume you need. This decision is in part based on requirements that prospective employers may have, and in part based on what your background and employment needs are.Type of organization. Resumes can be defined according to how information on work and educational experience is handled. There are several basic, commonly used plans or designs you can consider using.Functional design: Illustrated below, the functional design starts with a heading; then presents either education or work experience, whichever is stronger or more relevant; then presents the other of these two sections; then ends with a section on skills and certifications and one on personal information. Students who have not yet begun their careers often find this design the best for their purposes. People with military experience either work the detail in to the education and work-experience sections as appropriate, or they create separate section specifically for military experience at the same level as education and work experience.Thematic design: Another approach to resumes is the thematic design, which divides your experience and education into categories such as project management, budgetary planning, financial tracking, personnel management, customer sales, technical support, publications—whichever areas describe your experience. Often, these categories are based directly on typical or specific employment advertisements. If the job advertisement says that Company ABC wants a person with experience in training, customer service, and sales, then it might be a smart move to design thematic headings around those three requirements. If you want to use the thematic approach in your resume, take a look at your employment and educational experience—what are the common threads? Project management, program development, troubleshooting, supervision, maintenance, inventory control? Take a look at the job announcement you’re responding to—what are the three, four, or five key requirements it mentions? Use these themes to design the body section of your resume. These themes become the headings in the body of the resume. Under these headings you list the employment or educational experience that applies. For example, under a heading like “FINANCIAL RECORDS,” you might list the accounting and bookkeeping courses you took in college, the company-sponsored seminars on Excel you took, and the jobs where you actually used these skills.Figure 4.7.1 illustrates the two types of resume organization:Figure 4.7.1Type of information. Types of resumes can be defined according to the amount and kind of information they present:Objective resumes: This type just gives dates, names, titles, no qualitative salesmanship information. These are very lean, terse resumes. In technical-writing courses, you are typically asked not to write this type. The objective-resume style is useful in resumes that use the thematic approach or that emphasize the summary/highlights section. By its very nature, you can see that the thematic approach is unclear about the actual history of employment. It’s harder to tell where the person was, what she was doing, year by year.Detailed resumes: This type provides not only dates, titles, and names, but also details about your responsibilities and statements about the quality and effectiveness of your work. This is the type most people write, and the type that is the focus of most technical-writing courses. The rest of the details in this section of this chapter focus on writing the detailed resume.Layout and Detail Format in ResumesAt some point in your resume planning, you’ll want to think schematically about the layout and design of the thing. General layout has to do with the design and location of the heading, the headings for the individual sections, and the orientation of the detailed text in relation to those headings. Detail formats are the way you choose to arrange and present the details of your education and work experience.Layout. Look at resumes in this book and in other sources strictly in terms of the style and placement of the headings, the shape of the text (the paragraphs) in the resumes, and the orientation of these two elements with each other. Some resumes have the headings centered; others are on the left margin. Notice that the actual text—the paragraphs—of resumes typically does not extend to the far-left and the far-right margins. Full-length lines are not considered as readable or scannable as the shorter ones you see illustrated in the examples in this book.Notice that many resumes use a “hanging-head” format. In this case, the heading starts on the far-left margin while the text is indented another inch or so. This format makes the heading stand out more and the text more scannable. Notice also that in some of the text paragraphs of resumes, special typography is used to highlight the name of the organization or the job title.Detail formats. You have to make a fundamental decision about how you present the details of your work and education experience. Several examples of typical presentational techniques are shown below in Figure 4.7.2. The elements you work with include:Occupation, position, job titleCompany or organization nameTime period you were thereKey details about your accomplishments and responsibilities while there.Resume experience samplesFigure 4.7.2There are many different ways to format this information. It all depends on what you want to emphasize and how much or how little information you have (whether you are struggling to fit it all on one page or struggling to make it fill one page). Several different detail formats are shown above.For more resume design tips, see the following video, “How to Design Your Resume” from GCFLearnFree.org:Thumbnail for the embedded element "How to Design Your Resume"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=438 Early-Career ResumesIf you are at the beginning of your career, all the advice and examples to this point may seem fine and good, but what if you have very little experience? Careers must start somewhere—and so must resumes. You can use several strategies to fill out your resume so that you appear to be the promising entry-level candidate that we all know you are.Cite relevant projects (both in academia and community) you’ve worked on, even if they are not exactly related to the career that you pursue.Spend extra time describing college courses and programs you have been involved in. What about team projects, research projects, or reports?Include volunteer work that has had any trace of technical in it. (If you’ve not done any volunteer work, get to volunteering!)List any organizations you have been a member of and describe any of their activities that have any trace of technical in them. (If you’ve not belonged to any technically oriented organizations, get to belonging!)Use formatting to spread what information you have to fill out the resume page.In the student resume example below, notice how much space that details about education take up. This resume writer could have included even more: Descriptions of key courses and projects could have been provided under a heading such as “Essential Coursework.”Example of an Early-Career ResumeNotice too that the resume above example includes plenty of co-op and part-time work. The bulleted-list format extends the length of the resume so that it fills up the page. At the bottom of the resume, the writer lists awards and organizations. These too could be amplified if necessary. Details as to what the award is about, why this writer received it, and what those organizations are—these are examples of good information that could be added, if necessary.Subtle changes in format can also help make your resume fill a page. Top, bottom, left, and right margins can all be pushed down, up, and in from the standard 1.0 inch to 1.25 inches. You can add extra space between sections. To do so, don’t just press Enter. Instead, use the paragraph-formatting feature of your software to put 6 or 9 points, for example, below the final element of each section. Line spacing is another subtle way to extend a resume. If your software by default uses 13.6 points of line spacing for Times New Roman 12-point text, experiment with changing the line spacing to exactly 15.0 points.Resume ChecklistAs you plan, write, or review your resume, keep these points in mind:Readability: are there any dense paragraphs over 6 lines? Try to keep paragraphs under 6 lines long. The “hanging-head” design helps hereWhite space: Don’t crowd your resume with too much detail. Find ways to incorporate more white space in the margins and between sections of the resume. Again, the “hanging-head” design is also useful.Special format: Make sure that you use special format consistently throughout the resume. For example, if you use a hanging-head style for the work-experience section, use it in the education section as well.Consistent margins: Most resumes have several margins: the outermost, left margin and at least one internal left margin. Typically, paragraphs in a resume use an internal margin, not the far-left margin. Make sure to align all appropriate text to these margins as well. Avoid unnecessary multiple margins: they give your resume a ragged messy look.Writing style: In resume writing, it’s better to use fragments than complete sentences. For example, instead of writing “I supervised a team of five technicians…” you might write “Supervised team of five technicians…” (however, you don’t have to leave out normal words such as articles).Bold, italics, different type size, caps, other typographical special effects: Resumes are great places to use all of your fancy word-processing features such as bold, italics, different fonts, colors, and type sizes, but don’t go crazy with these tools! Too much fancy typography can be distracting and/or make your resume look unprofessional. If you do use special typography, be sure to be consistent in its usage throughout the resume. If some job titles are italics, make them all italics. Page fill: Do everything you can to make your resume fill out one full page and to keep it from spilling over by 4 or 5 lines to a second page. At the beginning of your career, it’s tough filling up a full page of a resume. As you move into your career, it gets harder to keep to one page. If you need a two-page resume, see that the second page is full or nearly full.Clarity of boundary lines between major sections: Design and format your resume so that whatever the main sections are, they are very noticeable. Use well-defined headings and white space to achieve this. Similarly, design your resume so that the individual segments of work experience or education are distinct and separate from each other.Reverse chronological order: Remember to list your education and work-experience items starting with the current or most recent and working backwards in time.Consistency of phrasing: Use the same style of phrasing for similar information in a resume—for example, past tense verbs for all descriptions of past work experience.Consistency of punctuation style: For similar sections of information use the same kind of punctuation—for example, periods, commas, colons, or nothing.Translations for “inside” information: Don’t assume readers will know what certain abbreviations, acronyms, or symbols mean, so take time to describe organizations and terms rather than using acronyms. Grammar, spelling, usage: Watch out for these problems on a resume—a single grammar, spelling, or usage error could sink your chances at getting an interview.Additional Resources“8 Modern Resume Tips” from Alan Ackman at Pluralsight“Gallery of Sample Resumes.” from GCFGlobal.org“How to Write A Resume with Little or No Work Experience,” video from Professor Heather AustinCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Business Correspondence." Open Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]"Resumes." Online Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]"How to Design Your Resume." Uploaded by GCFLearnFree.org, 1 Feb 2018, Youtube.com.Chapter 4.8 Establishing Your Professional SelfEstablishing Your Professional Self: Resume Writingby Cassandra Branham and Megan McIntyre, Writingcommons.orgCompiling a resume can feel like a daunting task. Just like essay writing, resume creation works well as a process. Before worrying about the format of the resume and where to place everything in a document, consider beginning by compiling an informal list of past and present work experience and education. Once you have a first draft, look at resumes in the field you are applying to, since every field has different standards and preferences. Remember: there are no one-size-fits all resumes. The key to constructing a polished resume is tailoring your experience to the job to which you’re applying.After you’ve read the job ad(s) and identified key skills and words/phrases, you might consider creating an exhaustive list of possible content for each section of the resume. Not all resumes will have all the sections below. In fact, depending on the amount of relevant experience and skills you have, you may eliminate more than one of these sections. However, maintaining a much longer list of possible content will allow you to more easily tailor your resume to various positions.Creating Your ListTo begin, list each of the potential sections (the list of headings in Table 4.8 below is not exhaustive). The idea is to create headings that allow you to categorize and demonstrate your most relevant qualifications and experiences. For each of these categories, use bullet points with phrases rather than complete sentences to describe your experiences. Action verbs, such as communicated, completed, produced, etc., help to convey your participation. To get started, consider the following questions for each section:TABLE 4.8 Resume HeadingsPOTENTIAL SECTION HEADINGAsk yourself the followingOBJECTIVEWhat particular position am I seeking?How will my skills be appropriate for this particular position?What key words from the job ad might help me frame my skills for this position?The key to writing a quality objective statement is specificity. Instead of writing: “To obtain an entry-level marketing position,” try “To obtain an entry-level social media marketing position with a global media conglomerate that will allow me to benefit the company through my knowledge of social media promotions.” For more help, see previous page’s section on Objective Statements.Please note: not all resumes should include an objective. In fact, for many resume writers the extra space taken up by the objective may be better used to expand other sections. Additionally, many employers do not expect to see objectives.SUMMARY OF QUALIFICATIONSWhat skills or experiences do I have that make me particularly well-suited for this position?If an employer reads no other section of my resume, what do I want her to know about my qualifications?How can I quantify my experiences?What are my most impressive relevant skills and experiences?EDUCATIONWhat university did I attend, and what degree(s) have I earned or am I pursuing?In what subject is my degree?If I am still pursuing a degree, what is my expected month and year of graduation?What relevant course have I taken?What, if any, academic honors have I received?What relevant projects have I completed during my coursework (i.e., capstone projects, community service project, client-based projects, theses, etc.)?What is my GPA? (Please note: most resume writers only include GPAs of 3.0 or higher.)WORK EXPERIENCEWhere and for how long have I worked?What were my job titles?What were my job duties?How can I frame these duties using keywords from the job ad?What skills did I use and/or develop as part of this position (i.e., communication and writing skills, interpersonal skills, organization skills, etc.)?LINGUISTIC SKILLSAm I bilingual?Do I have intermediate proficiency in another language?TECHNICAL SKILLSAm I proficient in any software like Excel, PowerPoint, etc.?Do I know any coding languages?Can I use any field specific software?Do I have experience with collaborative writing spaces like Google Docs?ACCOMPLISHMENTSHave I won any academic, athletic, teaching, or volunteering awards?Have I been awarded any notable scholarships?Have I earned a high academic GPA?Have I taken any summer study abroad trips?ACTIVITIES (i.e., volunteer work, shadowing, leadership/membership in honors societies, etc.)Am I a member of any academic or professional organization(s)?Have I shadowed a professional in my desired profession?Have I volunteered for an organization or project? Have I organized an event?Narrowing Your ListOnce you’ve created your long list of experiences, you’ll have to decide how to narrow that list in order to create a concise, cohesive resume. While it might be tempting to include all of your educational, employment, and extracurricular experiences on your resume, including details that are not relevant to the position for which you are applying can often take attention away from your most relevant qualifications. In order to highlight your most impressive experiences, it is important to think critically about what the job you are targeting requires and how your experiences match up with those needs.Undergraduate resumes are typically one full page in length. However, if you have a significant amount of experience in your field, your resume might be longer than one full page. The rule of thumb is this: Limit your undergraduate resume to one full page unless you can fill at least one and a half full pages with relevant experiences. For many of you, this means you will need to eliminate some of your less relevant experiences.You can narrow your list in three ways: by eliminating sections, by eliminating one or more experience within a section, or by cutting down your descriptions of one or more experiences.Eliminating Sections: The quickest way to pare down your list is to eliminate sections that have no content. For example, if you only speak English, you don’t need a “Linguistic Skills” section. Additionally, if you have a section that is not relevant to a particular position, you might eliminate that section. For example, if you are applying for a position as a house painter and the job ad makes no mention of office or computer work, you might eliminate your “Technical Skills” section.Eliminating Experiences: Another way to highlight your most relevant experience is by eliminating some experiences within a section. For example, if you are applying for a position as technical support specialist, and you were previously employed as a technical support specialist, a customer service representative, and a teacher at a daycare center, you might eliminate your position at the daycare from your resume. Eliminating this experience from your resume does not mean that this position did not teach you valuable things; however, your work as a technical support specialist and a customer service representative are more relevant to the position for which you are currently applying.Cutting Down Descriptions: One final way to trim down your list of experiences is by cutting down descriptions. Typically, you will include descriptions in the form of bulleted lists that help you to describe your employment, volunteer, or educational experiences. However, although it is important to make sure that you reader knows how these experiences are relevant to the position for which you are now applying, it is not necessary to tell your reader everything about these experiences. For example, if you’re applying for a position as a customer service technician and you were previously employed as a cashier at a supermarket, rather than highlighting your job duties, such as ringing up groceries, you might focus on the customer service skills that you developed at this position, such as ensuring customer satisfaction. This enables you to trim down your list by focusing on skills rather than duties. Rather than providing an exhaustive list, you should aim to include 2-4 bullets for each experience that you are describing.Creating a DraftOnce you have tailored your list to highlight your most relevant experiences for the position to which you applying, you’re ready to take your list and turn it into a draft of your resume. Additional Resources“Writing the Conventional Resume,” an article by Joe Schall about organizing and formatting resumes CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONBranham, Cassandra and McIntyre, Megan. "Establishing Your Professional Self. WritingCommons.org. [License: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0]Chapter 24.9 Job Search StrategiesThe following comes from Chapter 12.1 “Preparation” in Technical Writingby Susan Last at Portland Community College:Finding A JobFinding a suitable job opening itself can be a time-consuming process. Here are a few resources to get you started:Job boards: browse sites like Indeed, CareerBuilder, Glassdoor and Monster to search for jobs in your field.Specialty job lists: look for lists of jobs in specific industries such as food service (Poached), nonprofits (Idealist), or media (MediaBistro)Company, organization and government web sites: visit the employment section on websites of companies you admire; search federal, state, county, and city websites for job government job postings.Your own network: talk to friends, past employers, and professors or visit LinkedIn to search for openings at companies in your network.Your college: visit your college or university placement office/career center and attend job fairs hosted at your college.Many job seekers also use craigslist to look for work; just be aware that craigslist postings often lack detail and may come from headhunters or placement agencies, rather than from the direct employer.Once you have found a job, make sure to print and/or save a copy of the job posting or job description. You will use this document to help you tailor your application materials. Because companies often delete the job posting once they have received sufficient applicants, it is important that you save your own copy of the document by copying the text and pasting it into a new document, or by saving the webpage.Conducting A Self-InventoryAs you work on your resume, you may worry that you have nothing valuable to include, or you may worry that you are “bragging.” One way to get over these hurdles is to allocate pre-writing time to a self-inventory. Brainstorm your skills, accomplishments and knowledge. What did you accomplish at work, school, or a volunteer position? What skills have you learned? What would you tell a friend or family member you were proud of having achieved there? Start writing down key terms and action verbs that describe your experiences and accomplishments, and don’t worry yet about putting them into a résumé format.As you gather information about your work history and skills, double check that your information is accurate and current – gather dates of employment, dates of trainings, lists of activities you have been involved in, academic awards, achievements and special projects. Job descriptions or performance reviews from previous jobs can also include key terms to include on your resume. Finally, ask former coworkers or managers about your significant workplace contributions.Researching Your Potential EmployerIt is important that you research your potential employer as well as the job for which you’re applying. The easiest way to research a potential employer is to visit the company’s website. Look for an “about us” page or a “mission statement,” and observe how the company describes its goals and values.Try to answer the following questions about the company or organization:Whom does this company serve?Who are this company’s partners or competitors?What technologies would I use at this company?What is the tone of this company’s materials (formal, conservative, humorous, “cutting edge,” etc.)?How would you describe this company’s brand?Here are a few more ways to research a company: search for its name on LinkedIn and other social media sites, browse for news articles about the company or press releases written by the company, speak with friends or colleagues who work for the company, or call the company to request an informational interview.As you research, look for ways to connect with the company:What do you admire about the company?Where do your values and interests overlap with those of the company?What makes this company a good fit for you?Try to summarize your connection to the company in one sentence. Remember that your potential employer is also your audience, and adapt your tone, examples, and level of technicality accordingly.Researching the Potential JobTo research the job itself, take advantage of the job description you have found. The job description is your secret weapon; in this document, you are told what the employer is looking for in a candidate.Print out the job description and annotate it; get into a conversation with it:Highlight or underline any qualifications that you hold — any skills you have, technologies you’ve used, etc.Make note of any past achievements that relate to any of the preferred qualifications. For example, if the job description seeks a candidate who can diagnose and solve technical problems, write down an example of a specific time in which you did so in a professional or academic setting.Circle any key terms you might use in your own materials. Using the same terms as a potential employer demonstrates to that employer that you are able to “speak their language.”Note any questions/uncertainties and any qualifications you do not have in order to decide what to highlight and what to downplay in your materials (as well as what you need to learn more about).CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"12.1 Preparation." Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]PART VCH 5: CollaborationFigure 5Teamwork is a key component of almost any workplace. It is is widely accepted that team synergy and team intelligence lead to greater efficiency and better results in most situations. Why, then, are some people reluctant to engage in teamwork? Perhaps this reluctance stems from ineffective or dysfunctional teamwork experiences in the past. Often the culprit in these situations is not a “poor team player” or an “inability to get along with others.” More likely it was caused by one of two things: misaligned goals or confusion over roles. For teamwork to be effective, all members of the team must understand and share the goals of the project, and all members must fully understand their roles—what is expected of them, and how they will be held accountable. An effective team leader will make sure that goals and roles are fully understood by all team members.Some common benefits of working in teams include increased productivity, increased innovation, and increased efficiency. Excellent teams have synergy that makes them more than simply the sum of their parts. The term “team intelligence” refers to the fact that collectively, teams have more knowledge and skill than the single individuals working separately. However, challenges can also arise when working in a team. Conflicts within a team do occur and often they begin as a result of poor communication and weak focus. Some ways to handle these challenges include the following:Elect a team leader: the team leader will act as the hub for communication and tasks. This person helps provide direction and guidance for the team. This should be someone who has earned the team’s respect and who can be persuasive and tactful. This role can be rotated among team members.Ensure the goal is clear: a team is governed by the goal that everyone works to achieve. It is important that the goal is clearly understood and agreed upon by everyone on the team.Establish team rules: as a team, determine the rules by which the team will operate. These should include expectations around time, meetings, attendance, communication, decision-making, contribution, and mechanisms to warn and/or fire a team member or quit a team.Assign responsibilities: as part of the breakdown of tasks, members should be assigned responsibility for certain tasks, which means that they are the primary leads in preventing and addressing issues that come up in that area.Set agendas for meetings and keep minutes: to ensure that team meeting time is useful and achieves its purpose, plan an agenda for each meeting to help keep everyone on task. In addition, have someone take minutes to record decisions that are made. This record helps prevent repetition and ensures work actually gets done.Determine the timing for tasks: task timing involves two aspects: the duration for completing the task and the timing of the task in relation to the other tasks. Typically, tasks take longer than you think they will so it is often better to add 25% to your duration estimate. The timing of the tasks are important to figure out because some tasks can be completed concurrently, but others may have to be sequenced. Professionals often use Gantt Charts to outline these tasks and the time they will take within the overall project scale.Manage communications: if a problem arises with someone on the team, the team leader should speak privately to the person and clearly indicate what needs to change and why. The focus should be on the behavior, not on the person’s character. Issues should be dealt with quickly rather than left to deteriorate further. If this does not solve the problem, then try other approaches.There are several tools and strategies that teams can use to improve their functioning and productivity. Some examples include using the following documents:Meeting Agendas: outlines the main points for discussion at a meetingMeeting Minutes: records the decisions and relevant discussion points for a meetingWork Logs: records the tasks and time spent for each team memberStatus Reports: records the completed tasks and work left to completeGantt Charts: breaks down tasks and their estimated duration over the work period.There are also many software programs and apps that can help teams manage projects. Students often use Google docs to work collaboratively on a document or project. The most common one used in the workplace is Microsoft Project. However, other productivity apps can be used to great effect as well. Slack, Wrike, and Asana are free popular web based options. Whatever tool you choose to use, it should be something that all members can access and understand. Additional Resources“Teams: Lessons Learned” from Inside Higher Ed“14 Tips for Leading A More Successful Meeting” from Forbes.com“Five Models for Understanding Team Dynamics” from Technical Writing Essentials CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Team Project Management." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0] Chapter 5.1 Collaborative WritingWhat is Collaborative Writing?Collaborative writing, group writing, team writing, distributed writing are all terms used interchangeably to describe what it generally means to perform collective writing in a professional atmosphere. For our purposes, however, we will refer to the act of writing together as collaborative writing. Collaborative writing entails the collective efforts of a group of people who work together on a written project. The main goal of collaborative writing is to produce the best work for the good of the company or organization by including the ideas and skill sets of multiple writers.Collaboration involves a mindset that sees the whole as more important than its parts. In other words, when people decide to collaborate, they are deciding to set aside their individual goals for the good of the group or company they represent. Collaboration seeks to combine multiple skill sets, knowledge bases, ideas and engagement from a number of people for the sole purpose of accomplishing a goal that benefits all, regardless of position or title. A collaborative mindset is focused on company success more than individual success.According to Ron Ricci and Carl Wiese, authors of the book The Collaboration Imperative (2011), a company’s success lies within the people they employ. “It’s not hiding in a budget spreadsheet or a warehouse full of inventory. It lies within your people—in their ideas, their experiences, their focus, their energy. The more you empower them to share their knowledge and skills, the more successful your organization will be. From ideas come innovation and new forms of productivity.”In their 2015 book Collaboration Begins with You: Be a Silo Buster, best-selling author and management expert Ken Blanchard, along with co-authors Jane Ripley and Eunice Parisi-Carew, define collaboration as “Collaboration is a whole order of magnitude beyond teams. It’s in the DNA of the company culture,” they write. The authors continue, “It’s an environment that promotes communication, learning, maximum contribution, and innovation – which, of course, all lead to healthy profits.”Thus, successful collaborative writing stems from a company culture that invites collaboration not just writing by way of teams and groups.Collaborative writing is writing that entails the collaborative efforts of a group of people who gather together to write documentation, produce images, provide subtext, and more in an effort to bring a project to completion. Members can work in spaces that are face-to-face or virtual. The main goal of collaborative writing is to produce the best work for the good of the company by including the ideas and skill sets of multiple authors.Figure 5.1Why Write Collaboratively?In today’s ever-changing, fast paced world of information, technology and social media, it is increasingly necessary to engage people who are able to contribute a varied set of skills, specialties and who come from various cultures in an effort to produce information that best reflects the company it represents. Today, people in government, science and technology are called upon on a regular basis to communicate large bodies of information in the best and most cost-efficient way possible with an outcome that allows a broad range of people from various backgrounds and walks of life to not only access the information, but to understand the information set forth. Thus, collaborative groups of writers have become more important than ever, making information even more accessible to multiple groups of people.But collaborative writing is not something that happens in a vacuum, nor is it magically produced after a brief period of writing. Collaborative writing, like all other types of writing is something that requires exercising the process of writing. And it is something that requires time and labor. And, the results can be rewarding. Companies all over the world have found that writing collaboratively can produce favorable outcomes for their better interests. This, however, does not come without costs. While there are many benefits to collaborative writing, there are also disadvantages if the project morphs into team or group writing.Benefits of Writing CollaborativelyCollaborative writing has many benefits. Because many companies believe the advantages of collaborative writing outweigh the disadvantages, many companies choose to have employees work together on projects with writers as a part of those teams.Let’s look at some of the advantages of collaborative writing:Collaborative writing creates a more enjoyable work environment. Because members of the team share the responsibilities of the project or writing, they must communicate verbally, electronically, and in some instances they must communicate virtually. These interactions often work to improve and foster a collegial atmosphere, producing a workplace that adds to the overall good of the company.Collaborative writing creates a product that considers diverse audiences. When a team is created with the thought of diversity, the work they produce tends to be more sensitive to varied cultures and audiences. If, for example, the team incorporates the skill sets of women, men, members of the LGBT community, cis and non-cis males and females as well as members of various races and cultures, the final product will have taken into consideration the complexities of multiple communities, something that is not so easily attained by a single community of writers.Collaborative writing provides an opportunity for employees – both new and not-so-new – to explore skills as both leaders and subordinate team members. A sage once said, “To be a good leader, you must learn to follow.” Now and then a true leader is born, but a really successful leader is one who has learned to follow. Employees who have been groomed and allowed to rise through the ranks often make the most successful leaders because they are able to understand the tasks at hand and empathize with the challenges created as a result of the task. Likewise, when organizations choose to rotate the roles of team members, it allows employees to participate in roles such as team lead, recorder, researcher, editor, reporter, and more.Collaborative writing fosters engagement through active learning. When employees write collaboratively, they put themselves in a position to either learn from or hone their dormant skills as they work with colleagues who may be more adept at a certain skill than they are.Collaborative writing helps to grow the organization. When all of the members of the team see their contribution as not just important but imperative to the success of the project, they contribute as an owner rather than a worker, ultimately affecting the bottom line – profit. And when a company has become successful as a result of fully engaged employees who see their contributions as the reasons behind the company’s success, the longevity of the company is inevitable.Collaborative writing produces a superior product or outcome. When performed correctly (see notes above about what true collaborative writing is and is not), the end result of the project will be more superior to anything produced outside of collaboration because the most advanced skills will have been utilized and because the members of the team will have drawn on their commitment to the end result for the good of not just themselves but for the good of the entire company.Collaborative writing draws on the use of technology. With the emergence of so many new collaboration tools and other technological advances designed to make writing more efficient, employees are better able to engage with their colleagues and produce projects in less time and with fewer obstacles than they could without those tools. There are various types of collaboration tools, including e-mail, voicemail, instant messaging (IM), VoiP video call (or voice over IP), online calendars, wikis and shared document workspaces.Additional Resources“Collaborative and Group Writing,” an article from Univ. of Wisconsin Writing Center“The Collaboration Imperative: Executive Strategies for Unlocking Your Organization’s True Potential,” a guide from the company Cisco Systems on the benefits of collaborative writingCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Collaborative Writing." Open Technical Communication. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0] "Women at the Meeting." RF.Studio Pexels.com. Photograph. 25 Feb 2020.Chapter 5.2 Successful CollaborationA Look at Successful CollaborationPerhaps you are just beginning your academic career, or you may be finishing it up. Either way, whether you’re someone new to college or someone who has been in school for a while, you’ve probably had some experience working in a group or on a team of some sort. Maybe you you’ve been part of an athletic or academic team. Perhaps you have some group experience from being a cheerleader, a boy scout or girl scout, or a member of the 4H Club. Either way, you’re likely familiar with the inner workings of a team or group environment.This page will look at some strategies aimed at effective collaborative writing in both academic and workplace settings.Establish clear objectives and tasksOffice teamFigure 5.2Successful collaboration is created by the use of several strategies, including the ability to establish clear objectives and tasks. Just as with individual writing, team writing must employ clear objectives. It is imperative for the success of the project that the objective is clear from the outset. Clear objectives serve as a goal or end result the team aims to achieve. Those goals or objectives serve as a sort of “lighthouse” that can be seen from a distance to help guide the members to a successful end result.Each member of the team should know from the start what is expected them. They should know their specific part and the connection of that part to the tasks and roles of other team members. Each member should see their role as important and one, which, if not completed, will negatively impact the project.It is important, then, that the team develop a space to meet and discuss the project—to ask questions, share ideas, provide input on the overall project, etc.Conduct effective meetingsAnother strategy of successful collaboration is the ability to conduct effective meetings that allow members to comfortably share their views and expertise. Being able to do so is often contingent on the ability of the team to employ careful listening skills versus just allowing a member to speak where team members just hear what is being shared. The difference in the two – listening versus hearing – is defined by intent and purpose. In The Science and Art of Listening (2012), Seth Horowitz delineates the two this way: “The difference between the sense of hearing and the skill of listening is attention.” In order to listen versus hear what is being said, then, you must choose (or intend) to understand what is being said, you must give your attention to what is being said. “Listening is a skill that we’re in danger of losing in a world of digital distraction and information overload.” (Horowitz, 2012). “The richness of life doesn’t lie in the loudness and the beat,” he continues, “but in the timbres and the variations that you can discern if you simply pay attention.” (Horowitz, 2012).Set a project scheduleSuccessful collaboration is also dependent upon setting a project schedule. In today’s technological world, there is an abundance of tools that enable teams to successfully achieve their end result by have a clear view of what is needed and when. Tools such as WorkZone, Basecamp, and Microsoft Project, among others, allow teams to know the schedule of their project and see the progress throughout.Keep them honestMaintaining a sense of ethical responsibility toward the project and team members is not only important, but it is also imperative for the success of the project. In Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases (2011), Manuel G. Velasquez outlines ethical standards that are helpful to consider in collaborative situations:Rights: Everyone has a right to engage in intellectual discussions at work without fear of reprisal. Likewise, when a document or product is produced, the general public has a right to expect that honesty was central in its production.Justice: Everyone should receive the same justice regardless of race, gender, or sexual orientation. Team members should be treated the same. If not, the team can become divided into separate “camps,” and the project can, in turn, become derailed.Utility: Consideration should be given for how group decisions will impact all involved. When the group operates as one unit, members will consider the impact that decisions will have on each of its members. The idea of operating as silos is thrown out of the window because it is understood that what affects one affects all.Care: Because the group operates from the “inside-out” mindset, care is given to those who are closest to members and with whom members work.Encourage discussion and diversityFinally, successful collaboration is contingent upon the very definition of collaboration as discussed earlier in the chapter—fostering an environment that promotes communication, learning, maximum contribution, and innovation. In other words, team members must feel comfortable sharing and at times debating about their ideas. Members should be allowed to fully operate in the diversity they bring to the team. No team member should be made to feel that her contribution is less important than that of other team members because she may be differently-abled. Likewise, a team member who is a part of the LGBTQ community, even if his sexual orientation is not considered a part of the majority in the workplace, should be allowed to communicate ideas on the project from his perspective. Allowing a contribution of ideas from diverse perspectives is best for the project because it takes into consideration the diverse audience who will most likely be the readers of the project. In the end, openness in discussion creates a product that considers the audience, a primary rule in writing for technical audiences.Choose effective leadersCollaborative writing teams depend on excellent leadership to guide the project in the right direction and keep participants on track. Without leadership, team members may act as if it’s an everyone-for-themselves game. It would be as if, instead of pulling in a straight line during a tug-o-war, everyone on your team pulled the rope in whatever direction suited them best, including opposite the direction you should be pulling. Good leadership gets everyone pulling in the same direction.The further you go in your profession and the more you move up in terms of responsibility and pay scale, the more likely it is you’ll occupy a leadership role. This may be far from now or perhaps you have the drive, personality, and people-managing skills for such a role already. Either way, you must consider the leadership role you’ll occupy as one whose success depends largely on communication skills.Common leadership rolesThe skill set that makes for an effective leader can be learned just like any other. Leaders take on the role because they are appointed, elected, or emerge into the role through attrition (for example, someone stepping into a leadership role when someone else has vacated it). Team members play an important role in this process.A democratic leader is elected or chosen by the group. The democratic leader involves the group in the decision-making process and ensures group ownership of the resulting decisions and actions as a result. This process is characterized by open and free discussions; an effective democratic leader encourages this diversity of opinion.An appointed leader, on the other hand, is designated by an authority to serve in that capacity irrespective of the thoughts or wishes of the group. This could go well or not. Such a leader may accomplish all the designated tasks, perhaps by any means necessary, but a group that refuses to accept their role as leader is going to be a dysfunctional one. The work environment is likely to be a toxic one under such leadership if the appointment is based on cronyism or nepotism (meaning that they became leader only because of who they know or are related to). Such a group will be pulling their tug-o-war rope in divergent directions until the unpopular leader leaves or is forced out (either from above or below) and a new leader properly endorsed by the group emerges into that office.An emergent leader is thus different from the first two paths by growing into the role often out of necessity. They may enter into the role merely because they know more than anyone around what needs to be done. When the appointed leader may have leadership skills but know little about the area they manage, group members will naturally look to the most senior experience team member for guidance. If the democratic leader fails to bring the group together, or does not represent the whole group, subgroups may form, each with an informal leader serving as spokesperson. In this way, the emergent leader is favored in any true meritocracy, where skill, talent, and experience trump other considerations. Additional Resources“6 Fundamentals of Effective Collaboration,” an article from Talentculture.com“7 Things You Should Know about Collaborative Editing,” a handout from Educause.org CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Collaborative Writing." Open Technical Communication. [License: CC BY-SA 4.0]"Teamwork." Communication at Work. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 5.3 Ineffective Collaborative WritingCollaborative writing is not without its challenges. The work itself may prove to be difficult as members juggle competing assignments and personal commitments. The work may also be compromised if team members are expected to conform and pressured to follow a plan, perform a procedure, or use a product that they themselves have not developed or don’t support. Groupthink, or the tendency to accept the group’s ideas and actions in spite of individual concerns, can also compromise the process and reduce efficiency. Personalities, competition, and internal conflict can factor into a team’s failure to produce, which is why care must be taken in how teams are assembled and managed.John Thill and Courtland Bovee in Essentials of Business Communication advocate for the following considerations when setting up a team:Select team members wiselySelect a responsible leaderPromote cooperationClarify goalsElicit commitmentClarify responsibilitiesInstill prompt actionApply technologyEnsure technological compatibilityProvide prompt feedbackGroup DynamicsGroup dynamics involve the interactions and processes of a team and influence the degree to which members feel a part of the goal and mission. A team with a strong identity can prove to be a powerful force. One that exerts too much control over individual members, however, runs the risk or reducing creative interactions, resulting in tunnel vision. A team that exerts too little control, neglecting all concern for process and areas of specific responsibility, may go nowhere. Striking a balance between motivation and encouragement is key to maximizing group productivity.A skilled communicator creates a positive team by first selecting members based on their areas of skill and expertise. Attention to each member’s style of communication also ensures the team’s smooth operation. If their talents are essential, introverts who prefer working alone may need additional encouragement to participate. Extroverts may need encouragement to listen to others and not dominate the conversation. Both are necessary, however, so the selecting for a diverse group of team members deserves serious consideration.Keep the following points in mind as you establish your team and begin working through the project:Avoid the “Me” syndrome where too many people seek the role of leadership. When a clear hierarchy and roles have not been established in the group, the inevitable outcome is that you develop disjointed teams, thereby developing a disjointed project. This takes away from the collaborative environment.Avoid the development of a multi-voice project where an agreed upon voice does not come through in the project. Having an agreed upon style sheet can help to alleviate this problem. Another strategy to avoid creating a multi-voice project is to establish a team member or members as editors who review the final draft, checking specifically for the voice and tone of the message.Avoid the tendency to have one or a few people shoulder the load of the team. This is sometimes created when ethical standards are not maintained and when members feel de-valued. When this happens, other members of the team who feel alienated tend to lose motivation to work, often abandoning the project.Avoid the tendency to engage in groupthink where members care more about getting along and becoming friends than they do about the goal of the project.Avoid the tendency to side with certain persons based on traits held in common when a conflict arises. Always maintain the goal and purpose of the project so that conflict resolution is paramount for the good of the team and the project.Additional Resources“Characteristics of Ineffective Teams,” from Stanford.edu “Collaborative Writing,” Technical Writing EssentialsCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Ineffective Collaborative Writing." Open Technical Communication. [License: CC BY 4.0] "Teamwork." Communication at Work. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 5.4 Meeting DocumentsAgendas, Minutes & Work LogsWhat happens at team meetings should be planned, recorded for future reference, and documented. Agendas, minutes, and work logs are documents that do this. A meeting also should have a chair (the person who keeps things on track) and a recorder or secretary (who records what happened and what decisions were made). Often these roles are rotated so that all team members have a chance to perform all meeting roles.AGENDASAgendas are the plan for what you want to discuss and accomplish at the meeting. It is usually made up of a list of items, sometimes with a time frame for each item.Figure 5.4.1 is an agenda example: Sample agendaFigure 5.4.1MINUTESMinutes follow up on the agenda by recording what decisions were made and what important topics were discussed. One person is responsible for recording the events of the meeting, and distributing the minutes to each member (via email usually). That way, no one should forget what tasks they agreed to complete and when.Figure 5.4.2 is an example of meeting minutes:Sample meeting minutes documentFigure 5.4.2WORK LOGSWork logs are common documents used in the workplace (and in your collaborative course assignments) to keep track of what work is done, by whom, and how long it took. These can be very helpful for keeping a team on track and ensuring equitable workloads. To ensure accountability, have each team member sign off on the work log.Figure 5.4.3 is an example of a work log: Figure 5.4.3 Additional Resources“Minutes” from the Mayfield Handbook of Technical and Scientific Writing, MIT.edu“Agendas” from the Mayfield Handbook of Technical and Scientific Writing, MIT.edu CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Team Project Management Tools & Strategies." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY 4.0] PART VICH 6: Research & Information LiteracyResearchPerforming research is the process of investigation and the discovery of information. It requires the skills of gathering information, deciding what is important, and writing about it for someone else, which is extremely valuable as both a student and a technical communicator. Developing solid research skills will stay with you for the rest of your life.The purpose of research is to increase knowledge, and so even the very best writing and information is useless if you cannot effectively communicate it to your audience. Additionally, writing helps clarify your thinking and improve your research. Once you have identified a problem or topic you’re interested in, you should begin gathering information to help you answer questions you have encountered along the way.Information LiteracyInformation literacycan be defined as the ability to identify, find, evaluate, and use information effectively. From effective search strategies to evaluation techniques, information-literate communicators know how to evaluate the quality, credibility, and validity of articles, books, and websites, and give proper credit. Information literacy is sometimes also referred to as “digital literacy” or “media literacy.” Regardless of the terminology, information literacy skills are fundamental to thrive as a communicator.Here’s a brief video introducing information literacy from USC Upstate Library: A video element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can watch it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=277 The LBCC Library provides many helpful resources. LBCC librarians are happy to provide instruction in information literacy, research skills, and the use of library tools at the Albany campus, online, and all LBCC Centers. The LBCC Library databases are also excellent places to begin your research.Watch the following video from LBCC’s Librarians: A video element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can watch it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=277 CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Information Literacy." Uploaded by USCUpstateLibrary. 30 Aug. 2017, Youtube.com.Chapter 6.1 Information LiteracyInformation literacy can be defined as a critical perspective, point of view, or framework that guides how people consume, evaluate, produce, use, and archive information. It can also be seen as a cluster of core, interconnected competencies people possess to identify, find, evaluate, apply, and acknowledge information. “Information literacy empowers people in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal, social, occupational and educational goals. It is a basic human right in a digital world and promotes social inclusion in all nations” (“Information Literacy.” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2005). Figure 6.1.1 The benefits of being information literate The information-literate person should be able to:Understand the need to use information and define your research topicIdentify the range of information resources availableLocate and access information using different library collectionsUse search tools to locate relevant information by applying effective search strategiesIdentify and use subject specific library databasesUse information independently and criticallyLocate and evaluate quality information on the webCite information and use it in a responsible and ethical mannerAdditionally, to be truly information literate requires that you simultaneously develop an awareness of the following:How you engage with the digital worldHow you find meaning in the information you discoverHow to articulate what kind of information you require,How to use information ethicallyThe role you play in the communication of your professionHow you evaluate information for credibility and authorityFor more information on what it means to be information literate, watch the following video “The Five Components of Information Literacy” from Seminole State Library: Thumbnail for the embedded element "5 Components of Information Literacy"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=586 Why Is Information Literacy Important?Through information literacy, we learn to recognize that not all information is created equal. For instance, content on the internet continually grows, but it doesn’t always come from credible sources, as anyone can publish content for others to access. This means that there is a lot of bad or useless information to sort through when performing research. In an age of false reporting (“fake news”), it’s not always easy to determine which are credible sources and which are not, which makes becoming an information literate researcher all that more crucial. Information literacy helps us to recognize misleading, out-of-date, or false information. It also helps us sort through the data and interpret it intelligently.Being information literate also means we’re able to:Recognize problems and create questionsMake a plan for finding information and solutionsFormulate hypotheses and make predictionsFind information and data from books and the InternetEvaluate the credibility of the sources (i.e. is the material peer-reviewed or held to an ethical standard?)Organize and synthesize all gathered informationMake conclusions and process understandingWatch the following video on information literacy from Southern Maine Community College: A video element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can watch it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=586 Additional Resources“Five Components of Information Literacy,” a brief video from Seminole State LibraryCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATIONMoxley, Joseph. "Information Literacy." Writingcommons.org. [License: CC BY 4.0]"What You Need to Know about Document Design." Uploaded by SMCC Library, 16 Aug. 2016. YouTube.com.Chapter 6.2 Performing ResearchIn order to write effective technical documents, technical writers need to do their research. Even if the subject matter is familiar, getting the facts straight ahead of time is essential for a successful project, assignment, or document.There are a number of ways technical writers conduct research, such as the followingOnline – When a person is writing up a user manual, they might be able to find the necessary information online to complete their assignment.On-the-job – Many technical writers are already experts in their field, so they can rely on personal experience to create their documents.Interviews – In some cases, a technical writer may have to set up an interview with another professional to get the necessary details for the end result.Libraries and other research facilities – And there’s always the library for additional assignment-related information.Effective Research ProcessesSimply going to an information source, extracting it, and then putting it into your draft is not enough. While this might work for everyday writing, technical writing is meant to be used actively, so its content needs to be accurate.Know the goal– Understanding the goal or purposeof the user document will guide the research process and allow the technical writer to find appropriate facts to use.Check and double check– It never hurts to check the facts and then to check them again to ensure they are accurate.Find multiple sources– Whenever possible, find multiple sources for the material and cite them in the technical writing document.Talk with experts in the field– Another way to verify information, talking with experts in the field can yield better information from their experience.Figure 6.2.1Technical Writing Research MethodsResearch is not just the collection of facts for a technical writing document; it is a process in which information is uncovered and expressed in a meaningful way to the audience. Before you begin documenting your deliverables, you need to gather all the required information. You need to conduct different research methods to do this. Here are a few methods of conducting research in technical documentation:Primary Research – Conduct primary research either using the source documents or interacting with the subject matter experts. These methods are called primary methods as you get first-hand information from the two most reliable sources – specifications documents and the subject matter experts.Gathering Information from Sources – Begin reading and gathering all the available information on your topic from websites, library databases, as well as print media. However, you’ll likely encounter information irrelevant to your topic and audience, so you need to analyze the impact your sources will likely have on your audience.Collecting Information from Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) – Interacting with subject matter experts can help you answer research questions and provide accurate information for your report. Subject matter experts (SMEs), such as engineers and developers, are often able to provide all the information you need to answer all your questions.Secondary Research – Use additional methods that help you in gathering the information through logical methods, apart from the direct methods specified earlier. The different methods of conducting secondary research are as follows:Preparing an Outline – Start framing the outline on the basis of the available information. Thus, you can identify the gaps and you can perform additional tasks to fill such gaps. An outline makes the writing process more efficient and focused. It presents the material in a logical form and shows the connections of ideas in your writing. Alongside constructing an ordered overview of your writing, it also defines boundaries and groups. See a sample outline here.Information Mapping – Use this research-based, tested, and proven methodology to develop documentation. It is a tool that helps you develop documentation, which is organized and presented in a manner that is clear and usable to the reader. Information mapping helps in making documents consistent and easy to understand.*TIP: Strong research blends primary and secondary research.Watch the following video, “Research in Technical Writing,” by William Smith: A video element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can watch it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=588 Getting Started with ResearchResearch is about questions. In the beginning the questions are focused on helping you determine a topic and types of information and sources; later in the research process, the questions are focused on expanding and supporting your ideas and claims as well as helping you stay focused on the specific rhetorical situation of your project.Questions to help you get startedWhat is my timeline for the project? You will likely want to set personal deadlines in addition to your actual deadline (from your instructor or employer).What do I want to know or learn about? This helps you determine scope or the limits of your research.What do I already know about this topic?What biases might I have about this topic? How might I combat these biases?Questions to determine methodologyWhere might I find useful, reliable information about this topic? For academic research, you will generally focus on library, technical, scientific, and governmental resources. It is fine if you are not quite sure exactly where you should look; your instructor should be able to help you determine some places that would be appropriate.Will I need to perform primary research, secondary research, or both?Next you will develop a research question. By this point you should have a general idea of your topic and some general ideas of where you might begin your research. Once you have developed your research question(s), you are ready to begin searching for answers.Where to lookIn the 21st century, we generally turn to the internet when we have a question. For technical, scientific, and academic research, we can still turn to the internet, but where we visit changes. We will discuss a few different places where you can perform research including Google, Google Scholar, and college libraries.Google & Google Scholar: The default research site for most students tends to be Google. Google can be a great starting place for a variety of research. You can use Google to find news articles and other popular sources, such as magazine articles and blog posts. You can use Google to discover keywords, alternative terms, and relevant professional businesses and organizations. The most important thing to remember about using Google is that search results are organized by popularity, not by accuracy. Further, because Google customizes search results based on a user’s search history, searches performed by different people or on different browsers may provide different results.For many technical, scientific, and scholarly topics, Google will not provide access to the appropriate and necessary types of sources and information. Google Scholar, however, searches only academic and scientific journals, books, patents, and governmental and legal documents. This means the results will be more technical and scholarly and therefore more appropriate for much of the research you will be expected to perform as a student. Though Google Scholar will show academic and technical results, that does not mean that you will have access to the full-text documents. Many of the sources that appear on Google Scholar are from databases, publishers, or libraries, which means that they are often behind paywalls or password-protected. In many cases, this means you will have to turn to a university or other library for access.University/College Libraries: Library resources, such as databases, peer-reviewed journals, and books, are generally the best bet for accurate and more technical information. A Google search might yield millions and millions of results and a Google Scholar search may yield tens or hundreds of thousands of results, but a library search will generally yield fewer but more relevant results. Figure 6.2.2Overall, library resources are more tightly controlled and vetted. Anyone can create a blog or website and post information, regardless of the accuracy or usefulness of the information. Library resources, in contrast, have generally gone through rigorous processes and revisions before publication. For example, academic and scientific journals have a review system in place—whether a peer-review process or an editorial board—both feature panels of people with expertise in the areas under consideration. Publishers for books also feature editorial boards who determine the usefulness and accuracy of information. Of course, this does not mean that every peer-reviewed journal article or book is 100% accurate and useful all of the time. Biases still exist, and many commonly accepted facts change over time with more research and analysis. Overall the process for these types of publications require that multiple people read and comment on the work, providing some checks and balances that are not present for general internet sources.*At the bottom of this page you will find links to LBCC’s Library research databases.Keyword searchesOnce you decide on a general topic, you will need to determine keywords that you can use to search different resources.It is important to have a wide range of keywords because not all terms will result in the same information. Developing a list of keywords can be aided by a quick Google search. A Google search may reveal more official language or terminology, broader or narrower terms and concepts, or related terms and concepts. You can use a couple different strategies to help narrow your search. Using quotation marks around two or more words means the search results will contain those words only in that specific order. For example, a search for “illegal aliens” would only provide results where these words appear in that exact order, with no other words between them. A search for illegal aliens without the quotation marks will show information on illegal aliens, too, but it will also show any sources that have the words illegal and alien anywhere in the text.Now that you’ve chosen a topic, developed a research question, and gathered relevant resources, it’s time to put your research to use. The next section, “Using Your Research,” will help you do just that. Additional ResourcesLBCC Library Databases:Academic Search PremiereEbook CentralOpposing Viewpoints“What Is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples,” an article from QuestionPro.com CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Strategies for Conducting Research." A Guide to Technical Communications. [License: CC BY 4.0]Moxley, Joseph. "Research." WritingCommons.org. [License: CC BY NC-ND 4.0] "Research in Technical Writing." Uploaded by William Smith, 10 Apr. 2020. YouTube.com.Chapter 6.3 Using Your ResearchWoman reading a bookFigure 6.3Determining a topic and finding relevant sources are only the beginning steps in the research process. Once you locate sources, you have to read them and determine how useful and relevant they are for your particular research context. The sources we use can either add or detract from our overall credibility. Therefore, reviewing, processing, and documenting information is an integral part of the research process.SkimmingSkimming is the process of reading key parts of a text in order to get an overview of an author’s argument and main ideas. There are many different methods for skimming, so you will have to determine which works best for you and your particular source.Most well-written texts, such as essays, articles, and book chapters, are generally organized in similar ways: Introduction: provides the main idea/thesis as well as overview of the text’s structureBody: provides claims, arguments, evidence, support and so on to support thesisConclusion: provides connections to larger contexts, suggests implications, ask questions, and revisit the main ideasIdeally, the main ideas will be presented in the introduction, elaborated on in detail in the body, and reviewed in the conclusion.Further, many sources will contain headings or subheadings to organize points and examples. Many sources will also use well-written paragraphs with clear topic sentences that provide the main idea(s) discussed in the paragraph. All of these aspects will help you skim while developing a sense of the writer’s argument and main ideas.When you skim a source, consider the following process:Read the introduction (this could be a few paragraphs long).Scan the document for headings. In a shorter article, there may not be any headings or there may be only a couple.Whenever you see a new heading, be sure to read at least the first few sentences under the heading and the final few sentences of the section.Read the conclusion.Taking NotesTaking notes is a central component of the research process. While you skim the articles, record important information, beginning with publication information. Publication information provides a sense of the rhetorical situation for the source, such as its intended audience and context. As you encounter texts in your research, consider their role in your project and note the publication information as you use it. Recording the publication information as you go will help avoid problems, including plagiarism, or mistakes when citing and building the reference list (see examples below).Journal articles: Published journal articles have been through a vetting process and are generally considered reliable and academically sound. You should note the following information for citation purposes:Author(s)Publication dateArticle titleJournal titleVolume and issue numberDOI or permalinkWeb-based articles: When relying on websites, be sure that you have done some of your own vetting: Who owns the site? When was it last updated? is the research being funded by an organization that would benefit from specific research results? Are there any apparent biases? You should note the following information for citation purposes:Author(s)Publication dateArticle titleSite nameURLBooks: Like peer-reviewed journals, books typically go through an editorial process; therefore, they are generally considered credible sources of information. You should note the following information for citation purposes:Author(s)Publication dateBook titlePublisherCity and state of publication*NOTE: When using a selection from a book, such as an essay from a book containing other essays, or a specific part or chapter in a book, you should note the same information as above but also include the following for citation purposes:Editor(s) (comes after Author)Section or chapter title – (comes after Publication date)The goal of research notes is to help you remember information and quickly access important details, so be sure to note the following as you conduct your research:Thesis statement/Main ideaKeywords the author usesMajor points or claims the author makesEvidence, support and/or examples the author uses to support their points or claims*TIP: Whenever you copy the language exactly, be sure to use quotation marks to indicate that the information is coming directly from a source/author other than yourself. It’s easy to lose track of what came from where when you have many different sources for your research.Evaluating Your SourcesThe following is a system of evaluating the reliability of Internet information developed by the Cornell University Library. This information is especially important if you are using Internet sources and need to defend their validity and reliability.Point of View: Does this article or book seem objective, or does the author have a bias or make assumptions? What was the author’s method of obtaining data or conducting research? Does the website aim to sell you something or just provide information? What is the author’s purpose for researching and writing this article or book?Authority: Who wrote the material? Is the author a recognized authority on the subject? What qualifications does this author have to write on this topic? Is it clear who the intended audience is? What is the reputation of the publisher or producer of the book or journal? Is it an alternative press, a private or political organization, a commercial press, or university press? What institution or Internet provider supports this information? (Look for a link to the homepage.) What is the author’s affiliation to this institution?Reliability: What body created this information? Consider the domain letters at the end of a web address (URL) to judge the site’s quality or usefulness. What kind of support is included for the information? Are there facts, interviews, and statistics that can be verified? Is the evidence convincing to you? Is there any evidence provided to support the author’s conclusions, such as charts, maps, bibliographies, and documents? Compare the information provided to other factual sources.Timeliness: Has the site been recently updated? Look for this information at the bottom of a web page. How does the copyright of a book or publication date of an article impact the information contained in it? Do you need historical or recent information? Does the resource provide the currency you need?Scope: Consider the breadth and depth of an article, book, website, or other material. Does it cover what you expected? Who is the intended audience? Is the content aimed at a general or a scholarly audience? Based on your information need, is the material too basic, too technical, or too clinical?Take a look at this Prezi slideshow, “Sources: the Good, the Bad, and the eh…” from Rebecca Richardson, who explains how to effectively evaluate internet sources.Restating the Information in Your Own WordsAfter taking the time to skim, take notes, and evaluate your sources, you should attempt to briefly summarize author’s thesis and ideas into your own words. This ensures that you truly understand the source and the author’s points. There are three main ways to approach this process: Direct quoting, Summarizing and Paraphrasing.Direct QuotingA direct quotation, one of the most common forms of evidence, is a direct restatement of another author’s words. The quote must match the original source word for word and letter for letter. The quote should begin and end with quotation marks, which tells the reader that the information is directly quoted. Direct quotes are especially useful when the original writing is unique or difficult to summarize; when used effectively, they can also work to strengthen your support and credibility.EXAMPLE:According to the EPA’s assessment: “Lead can enter drinking water when service pipes that contain lead corrode, especially where the water has high acidity or low mineral content that corrodes pipes and fixtures.”Source: "Basic information about lead in drinking water." EPA.gov.SummarizingSummaries are condensed versions of the original source, in your own words. Summaries focus on the main ideas, but do not copy any of the original language. A 500 page book or a 2 hour movie could be summarized in a sentence. Summaries do not contain the same level of detail as the original source.EXAMPLE:Original text: Lead can enter drinking water when service pipes that contain lead corrode, especially where the water has high acidity or low mineral content that corrodes pipes and fixtures. The most common problem is with brass or chrome-plated brass faucets and fixtures with lead solder, from which significant amounts of lead can enter into the water, especially hot water.”Summarized text: Water becomes contaminated by lead when lead pipes, solder, or certain types of fixtures degrade, and hot water can increase the amount of lead released.Source: "Basic information about lead in drinking water." EPA.gov.ParaphrasingSimilar to summarizing, paraphrasing is a restatement of source material in your own words. The main difference is that paraphrasing tends to be closer in length to the original source. Paraphrases have the same (or nearly the same) level of detail as the original. Remember, though, if you copy from the original source even two or three words in a row, you must provide quotation marks around those words.EXAMPLE:Original passage: “Lead can enter drinking water when service pipes that contain lead corrode, especially where the water has high acidity or low mineral content that corrodes pipes and fixtures. The most common problem is with brass or chrome-plated brass faucets and fixtures with lead solder, from which significant amounts of lead can enter into the water, especially hot water.”Paraphrased passage: Water becomes contaminated by lead when lead pipes or lead solder degrades. Certain types of fixtures, such as those plated with chrome and brass, as well as hot water, acidic water, and water with lower amounts of minerals can make lead contamination significantly worse."Basic information about lead in drinking water." EPA.gov.Regardless of whether you choose to directly quote, summarize, or paraphrase a source, you must document the source material. Failure to do so properly could be viewed as plagiarismand can lead to allegations of academic or workplace dishonesty. The following section will cover the basics of documenting sources.Additional Resources“How Do I get Started with Research?” Open Technical Communication“Evaluating Sources for Credibility,” a brief video overview from NC State University LibrariesCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Writing About Research." A Guide to Technical Communications. [License: CC BY-NC 4.0]"Processes and Guidelines in Technical Writing." Open Technical Communication. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 6.4 Citation & Documentation BasicsThe Basics of Citing and Documenting Source MaterialResearch papers at the college level (and some workplace documents) require some kind of documentation style. Documentation styles provide students, teachers, and researchers standards and specifications to follow for paper set up, in-text documentation, and references. They also have recommendations for writing style, word choice, and, in some cases, organization.The most common documentation styles are APA (from the American Psychological Association) and MLA (from the Modern Language Association). Some fields and publications require Chicago Style (from the University of Chicago Press).While it may feel tedious learning the different aspects of a documentation style, it’s important to remember that following style guidelines helps add credibility to your writing by providing you with a structured method for sharing your research with your audience.Watch this short video, “What is Citing?,” from Cathy Cox at the College of the Redwoods to learn what citing is, when, where, and how to cite, and why it’s important:Thumbnail for the embedded element "What is Citing?"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=780 Additional ResourcesThe following resources will help you learn more about the three different documentation styles so that you may properly cite your sources and correctly format your paper:MLA 8th Edition Quick Reference Sheet, a handy reference guide for quick references to MLA formatting and citing rulesAPA 7th Edition Quick Guide, a brief guide from the APA on documenting sourcesThe Chicago Manual of Style Online, a comprehensive website with everything you need to know about Chicago Style These websites can help you format your sources:Easybib: Free Bibliography GeneratorBibMe: Free Bibliography & Citation MakerScribbr Citation Generator CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Citation & Documentation." OER Commons Excelsior Online Writing Lab. [License: CC BY 4.0]Cox, Cathy. "What is Citing?" Uploaded by SCCCLibrary, 16 Apr. 2016. Youtube.com.Chapter 6.5 Avoiding PlagiarismFigure 6.5.1What is Plagiarism and How Can I Avoid It?Plagiarism is fairly easy to avoid as long as you pay close attention to how you integrate your source material and make sure that you give credit to the source when using someone else’s words or ideas. There are two ways to use someone’s ideas: you may use them word for word (verbatim) as a quote, or you may paraphrase the idea in your own words. Either way, the original author should be credited for their words or ideas.Plagiarism (sometimes called “literary theft”) is the presentation of someone else’s work as your own.More formally stated, it is the act of claiming language, ideas, opinions, theories, software code, artistic material, or anything else developed by another person without acknowledging that person as the source of the material. Because of the ubiquity of information online and the ease with which we can cut and paste, it is very easy to commit plagiarism and not even be aware of doing so. But whether the plagiarism is intentional or unintentional, it is considered dishonest, unfair, and unethical.There are serious consequences for both intentional and unintentional plagiarism. Ignorance is not an excuse. As a student, the consequences of plagiarism can range from the loss of credit for an assignment or course to expulsion from school. In the work world, the consequences of plagiarism can range from loss of your professional reputation and credibility to the loss of your job and the destruction of your career. As a student, you should be familiar with your school’s and/or instructors’ academic integrity policies.Examples of PlagiarismCopying and pasting from a source into your work without attributionPurchasing a paper online or from another studentTurning in the same work in two different classes (self-plagiarism)Failing to put quotation marks around direct quotes in your workCopying a diagram, image, graph, or photo into your work without referencing the sourceCopying and pasting text and changing just a few words or phrases to “put it into your own words,” sometimes referred to as patch writingUsing information gained in a personal interview or conversation without citing the sourceFailing to cite sources for any information that you used in your paper*Only information considered to be universally common knowledge, such as dates of important events and widely known facts, can be used without citing the source.Credit must always be given to others for:their words, either quoted or paraphrased;their artistic material (photos, charts, slideshows, etc.); andtheir research findings, analysis, and conclusions.The best way to avoid plagiarism is to simply list the sources you used in preparing your work (many writers find it helpful to jot down or bookmark all their sources as they find them and compose their drafts). You may not end up using all of your sources, but saving them as you work (even if you may not use some) will save you a lot of trouble down the road trying to track down a source you used and forgot to document.Citing sources is the way you tell your audience whose works you used and to give credit to the creators of those works. It has the side benefit of providing your audience with a bibliography of relevant items on that topic in case they want to read further.Figure 6.5.2 provides some helpful tips to determine if you are plagiarizing: Infographic on plagiarismFigure 6.5.28 Simple Rules to Avoid PlagiarismTo avoid the plagiarism trap, here are 8 simple rules each researcher should follow:CITE WHILE YOU WRITETo avoid missing citations, make sure to insert citations while you are writing your paper. If you put your paper aside for a few days, you may forget where you found a particular piece of information or from where you copied a quote.AVOID COPY-PASTINGAvoid copy-pasting from other papers. It is better you reproduce someone else’s idea in your own words (so called “paraphrasing”) and provide a citation to the original source. Alternatively, if you specifically want to quote the original author, immediately insert the quotation marks around text you copy-pasted, followed by the citation.USE SHORT QUOTATIONSMake sure you don’t quote entire paragraphs. Limit quotations to one or two key sentences. Further, limit the total number of quotations in your paper to just a few. Lots of quotations make your text harder to read.ASK FOR PERMISSION FROM THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERIf you are copying small parts of a work, such as a short quote or a comment, and you are not sure if this falls under fair use, it is better to ask the copyright holder for a written permission.COPYING IMAGES AND PHOTOS IS ALSO PLAGIARISMImages and photos (or videos) are also copyrighted. If you wish to re-use someone else’s visuals in your own paper (for instance, in a review paper or in the methods section of a research paper), make sure you obtain written permission from the copyright holder. Many copyright holders will allow you to re-use given imagery if you properly cite and attribute the original source of the images, sometimes with a small fee. Follow the guidance of the copyright holder regarding the best wording to use for attribution.APPLY THE SAME STANDARDS WHEN COPYING FROM OPEN ACCESS JOURNALS OR THE PUBLIC DOMAINIf you re-use images or photos from open access journals, make sure to include the citation. If you quote from works that are available under an open access license or in the public domain (such as quoting from an author that is long deceased), you still have to use quotation marks and use a proper citation. While it would not be a copyright infringement to reproduce a work that is considered public domain, some readers might still consider it deceitful if you do not properly attribute the original author/work.INFORM YOUR CO-AUTHORSYou may be asked to work collaboratively in your class or workplace. If so, it’s important to make sure that all your co-workers/collaborators are familiar with best practices to avoid plagiarism. If in doubt, have your paper checked by a plagiarism detection software before submitting.AVOID SELF-PLAGIARISMIf you re-use your own previous work or imagery in new papers, this often leads to self-plagiarism. Usually, you give up copyright when transferring your work to a publisher so that self-plagiarism often constitutes a copyright infringement. In addition to possible copyright infringement, it is not good practice to re-publish material that is already available elsewhere.For more information on how to avoid plagiarizing, watch “Citing Sources & Avoiding Plagiarism” from Madison College Libraries: Thumbnail for the embedded element "Citation Help And Avoiding Plagiarism"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=794 Additional Resources“Plagiarism: Avoid it at All Costs,” a helpful slideshow presentation on avoiding plagiarism.“Avoiding Plagiarism, Self-plagiarism, and Other Questionable Writing Practices: A Guide to Ethical Writing,” a comprehensive website from the Office of Research Integrity devoted entirely to avoiding plagiarism. CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"5.2 Plagiarism." Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]"Citation Help and Avoiding Plagiarism." Uploaded by Madison College Libraries, 28 July 2019, Youtube.com.REFERENCES"8 Simple Rules to Avoid Plagiarism." Ediqo.com.PART VIICH 7: Technical ReportsWhat Is A Report?Reports are documents designed to record and convey information to the reader. Reports are part of any business or organization; from credit reports to police reports, they serve to document specific information for specific audiences, goals, or functions. The type of report is often identified by its primary purpose or function, as in an accident report, a laboratory report, a sales report, or even a book report. Reports are often analytical, or involve the rational analysis of information. Sometimes they simply “report the facts” with no analysis at all, but still need to communicate the information in a clear and concise format. Other reports summarize past events, present current data, and forecast future trends. While a report may have conclusions, propositions, or even a call to action, the demonstration of the analysis is the primary function. A sales report, for example, is not designed to make an individual sale. It is, however, supposed to report sales to date, and may forecast future sales based on previous trends. This chapter is designed to introduce you to the basics of report writing.Types of ReportsReports come in all sizes, but are typically longer than a page and somewhat shorter than a book. The type of report depends on its function. The function of the report is its essential purpose, often indicated in the thesis or purpose statement. The function will also influence the types of visual content or visual aids, representing words, numbers, and their relationships to the central purpose in graphic, representational ways that are easy for the reader to understand. The function may also contribute to parameters like report length (page or word count) or word choice and readability. Focusing on the content of your longer business documents is not only natural but necessary because doing so helps ensure complete, correct information.Reports vary by function, and they also vary by style and format. This chapter discusses reports in general terms, focusing on common elements, while also examining a few of the most common types of reports prepared by technical writers. Referencing similar documents or specific report examples may serve you well as you prepare your own reports.Informational or Analytical Report?There are two main categories for reports, regardless of their specific function or type. An informational report informs or instructs and presents details of events, activities, individuals, or conditions without analysis. An example of this type of “just the facts” report is a police accident or a workplace incident report. The report will note the time, date, place, contributing factors, like weather, and identification of those involved. It does not establish fault or include judgmental statements. You should not see, for example, “Driver was falling down drunk” in a police accident report. Instead, you would see “Driver failed sobriety tests and breathalyzer test and was transported to the station for a blood sample.” The police officer is not a trained medical doctor and is therefore not licensed to make definitive diagnoses but can collect and present relevant information that may contribute to that diagnosis.The second type of report is called an analytical report. An analytical report presents information with a comprehensive analysis to solve problems, demonstrate relationships, or make recommendations. An example of this report may be a field report by a Center for Disease Control (CDC) physician from the site of an outbreak of a virus, noting symptoms, disease progression, steps taken to arrest the spread of the disease, and recommendations for the treatment and quarantine of subjects. Table 7.1 lists many of the most common types of technical reports and their functions:TABLE 7.1: Common Report Types Report TypeReport Function1. Laboratory ReportCommunicates the procedures and results of laboratory activities2. Research ReportStudies problems by developing hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, and indicating findings or conclusions3. Field Study ReportDescribes one-time events, such as trips, conferences, seminars, as well as reports from offices and industrial plants4. Progress ReportMonitors and controls production, sales, shipping, service, or related business process5. Technical ReportCommunicates processes and products from a technical perspective6. Financial ReportCommunicates status and trends from a financial perspective7. Case StudyRepresents, analyzes, and presents lessons learned from a specific case or example8. Needs Assessment ReportAssesses the need for a service or product9. Comparative Advantage ReportDiscusses competing products or services with an analysis of relative advantages and disadvantages10. Feasibility StudyAnalyzes problems and predict whether current solutions or alternatives will be practical, advisable, or produced the desired outcome(s)11. Instruction ManualsCommunicate step-by-step instructions on the use of a product or service12. Compliance ReportDocument and indicate the extent to which a product or service is within established compliance parameters or standards13. Cost-Benefit Analysis ReportCommunicate costs and benefits of products or services.14. Decision ReportMake recommendations to management and become tools to solve problems and make decisions15. Benchmark ReportEstablish criteria and evaluate alternatives by measuring against the establish benchmark criteria16. Examination ReportReport or record data obtained from an examination of an item or conditions, including accidents and natural disasters17. Physical Description reportDescribe the physical characteristics of a machine, a device, or object18. Literature ReviewPresent summaries of the information available on a given subjectReports vary by size, format, and function, but they are typically organized around six key elements:Whom the report is about and/or prepared forWhat was done, what problems were addressed, and the results, including conclusions and/or recommendationsWhere the subject studied occurredWhen the subject studied occurredWhy the report was written (function/purpose), including under what authority, for what reason, or by whose requestHow the subject operated, functioned, or was usedPay attention to these essential elements when you consider your stakeholders (those who have an interest in the report). That may include the person(s) the report is about, whom it is for, and the larger audience of the business, organization, or industry. Ask yourself who the key decision makers are who will read your report, who the experts or technicians will be, and how executives and workers may interpret your words and images. While there is no universal format for a report, there is a common order to the information. Each element supports the main purpose or function in its own way, playing an important role in the representation and transmission of information.Checklist for ensuring that a report fulfills its goals:Report considers the audience’s needsFormat follows function of reportFormat reflects institutional norms and expectationsInformation is accurate, complete, and documentedInformation is easy to readTerms are clearly definedFigures, tables, and art support written contentFigures, tables, and art are clear and correctly labeledFigures, tables, and art are easily understood without text supportWords are easy to read (font, arrangement, organization)Results are clear and conciseRecommendations are reasonable and well-supportedReport represents your best effortReport speaks for itself without your clarification or explanation Additional Resources“Reports, Proposals, and Technical Documents,” a slideshow from the Purdue OWLCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Reports." Writingcommons.org. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 7.1 Instructions & ProcessesOne of the most common and important uses of technical writing is instructions—those step-by-step explanations of how to do things: assemble something, operate something, repair something, or explain a personal process (enrolling in college, for example) so that readers may better understand it and possibly use it themselves.Process texts are extremely common in school and professions. In school, teachers frequently assign process assignments. For example, humanities professors may ask for a description of how an artistic or literary period evolved; history professors, the contributions of a culture’s leaders over time; social science professors, the chronology of inventions; engineering professors, explanations of how sound is changed into electrical signals; business professors, how the Federal Reserve works or how to sell a product.On a daily basis, we read descriptive processes, including recipes, user manuals for new software, or advice columns on how to lose weight or how to succeed in school or a profession. These texts focus on answering one of the following questions:“How is this done?”“How can I do this?”While the topics of a process report or a set of instructions may vary, many share similarities: most are written to explain how something works, most are structured in chronological order using numbered steps, and most rely extensively on visuals. In writing instructions for learning a new software program, for example, writers might use screenshots and/or screen videos to walk users through the tutorial.Generally, it is good to have both text and visuals in your instructions since your audience is likely comprised of people with different learning styles. However, the use of visuals can vary depending on your audience and the intended use of the instructions. Visualshelp to clarify a concept that is difficult to explain using only words. Graphics may be used to show how something looks, how something should look once the step has been completed, how something is done or constructed, show trends or relationships, add liveliness to the project, or simply help to organize information. Graphics are useful since almost everyone (including children and others of a different language) can understand visual instructions and see exactly what they need to complete.Types of InstructionsThere are three main types of process texts:Descriptive processes: these answer the question, “How is this done?” These texts describe how a process occurs so that readers can understand it better. For example, writing a descriptive process about how you registered for a course online rather than in person might be useful to someone who has never done online registration.Prescriptive processes: these are explanatory in nature; they prescribe how something is done (or should be done) so that readers can do it themselves. These are the most common type of instructional documents. For example, you might write a prescriptive process guide for users explaining how to perform basic maintenance on their cars, such as changing their own oil, checking spark plugs, or replacing brake pads. *The samples listed below are examples of prescriptive processes.Blended descriptive and prescriptive processes make the main thrust of the document a descriptive process while having a few sections summarizing how the readers can perform the process. In other words, writers may address both “How can I do this?” and “How is this done?” in different parts of one text. Alternatively, they might develop different versions of the same document for two audiences–an audience of users and an audience of interested parties.Getting StartedFigure 7.1.1At the beginning of an instruction-writing project or assignment, it’s important to consider your audience and determine the characteristics (the number of tasks and steps) of the particular procedure you intend to write about (in other words, the rhetorical situation).Audience and situation: Early in the process, define the audience and situation of your instructions. Remember that defining an audience means defining its level of knowledge and familiarity with the topic. It is sometimes helpful to describe your audience to yourself first, and then use that to assess your message at the end to be certain it’s appropriate for your audience.Number of tasks: An important consideration is how many tasks there are in the procedure for which you are writing instructions. The term procedure can be used to refer to the whole set of activities your instructions discuss, while task can be used to define a semi-independent group of actions within the procedure. For example, setting up your modem is one task in the overall procedure of connecting a computer to the internet.As another example, a simple procedure like changing a car’s oil contains only one task; there are no semi-independent groupings of other activities. A more complex procedure, like using a microwave oven, contains plenty of semi-independent tasks, such as setting the clock, setting the power level, using the timer, cleaning and maintaining the microwave, and more.Some instructions have only a single task but have many steps within that single task. For example, imagine a set of instructions for assembling a children’s swing set. One effective approach would be to group similar and related steps into phases, and then renumber the steps at each new phase. A phaseis a group of similar steps within a single-task procedure. In the swing set example, setting up the frame would be one phase; anchoring the thing in the ground would be another; and assembling the box swing would be still another.Focusing InstructionsAnother consideration, which maybe you can’t determine early on, is how to focus your instructions. For most instructions, you can focus on the tasks involved, or you can focus on the tools needed.In a task approach to instructions on using a phone-answering machine, you’d have sections on recording your greeting, playing back your messages, saving your messages, forwarding your messages, and deleting your messages. These are tasks—the typical things users would want to do with the machine.On the other hand, in a tools approach to instructions on using a photocopier, there would be sections on the copy button, the cancel button, the enlarge/reduce button, the collate/staple button, the paper tray, the copy-size button, and so on. If you designed a set of instructions on this plan, you’d likely write steps for using each button or feature of the photocopier.Instructions ContentBe sure your instructions include the following items:Introduction: In carefully planning your instructions’ introduction, be sure to:Indicate the specific tasks or procedure to be explained.Indicate what the audience needs in terms of knowledge and background to understand the instructions.Give a general idea of the procedure and what it accomplishes.Indicate the conditions when these instructions should (or should not) be used.Give an overview of the contents of the instructions.General warning, caution, danger notices: Instructions must also alert readers to the possibility of ruining their equipment, screwing up the procedure, and/or hurting themselves. Also, instructions must emphasize key points or exceptions. For these situations, you should use special notices, such as Note, Warning, Caution, and/or Danger.Technical background or theory: At the beginning of some instructions (usually after the introduction), you may need a discussion of background related to the procedure. For certain instructions, this background is critical—otherwise, the steps in the procedure make no sense. In some cases, writers of instructions may need to spend significant time explaining things to readers before moving on to the actual steps involved in the process.Equipment and supplies: Most instructions include a list of the things you need to gather before you start the procedure. This includes equipment, the tools you use in the procedure (such as mixing bowls, spoons, bread pans, hammers, drills, and saws) and supplies, the things that are consumed in the procedure (such as wood, paint, oil, flour, and nails). In instructions, these are typically listed either in a simple vertical list or in a two-column list at the start of the instructions. Use the two-column list if you need to add specifications to some or all of the items—for example, brand names, sizes, amounts, types, model numbers, and so on.Discussion of the steps: When you get to the actual writing of the steps be certain to carefully consider the structure and format of those steps, any supplementary information that might be needed, and the point of view and general writing style of the instructions. One point of view used in technical writing is the second person, which is addressing the audience as you. *Generally speaking, writers of instructions should strive to do the following:Use clear, simple writing whenever possible.Have a thorough understanding of the process in all its technical detail.Work toward putting yourself in the place of the reader who will be using your instructions.Figure 7.1.2Instruction SamplesInstructions Sample 1 (Barbie Dreamhouse)Instructions Sample 2 (Trampoline Assembly)Student Instructions Sample 1 (How to Raise Potatoes in the Garden)Student Instructions Sample 2 (Rear Sway Bar Replacement)Student Instructions Sample 3 (Making Plywood)Video InstructionsIncreasingly, technical communicators use videos to explain instructions rather than using written manuals. Here’s a video on creating video instructions, and here are a few examples of video instructions:Short instructional video on how to create an animated GIF in PhotoshopShort instructional video on how to access a new bus serviceShort instructional video on how to escape quicksand Additional Resources“Writing Instructions,” Technical Writing Essentials“Instructions” Online Technical WritingCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Instructions & Process Reports." Writingcommons.org. [License: CC BY 4.0]"Instructions." Lumen Technical Writing. [License: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0]Chapter 7.2 Technical DescriptionsLike instructions, descriptive technical writing uses a combination of visuals and text to both “show” and “tell” the reader about the information being conveyed. Like more creative descriptions, technical descriptions sometimes draw on the “five senses” and metaphorical comparisons (analogies) to allow the reader to fully conceptualize what is being described. More often, however, they rely on concrete, measurable descriptors.Technical descriptions can take many forms, depending on purpose and audience. Descriptions can range from a brief sentence, to a paragraph, a whole section of a report, or an entire manual. Poorly written technical descriptions can cause confusion, waste time, and even result in catastrophe! Technical product descriptions are often legally required to ensure safety and compliance. Attention to detail is critical.Some general categories of technical descriptions include the following:Mechanism Descriptions: provide a detailed overview the physical aspects of a tool, machine or other mechanical device that has moving parts and is designed to perform a specific function. These could be product descriptions for sales or manufacturing, documentation of design specifications, info-graphics, etc. This chapter focuses in detail on this kind of description.Process Descriptions: detail a series of events (natural/biological/ecological, mechanical, social, or psychological phenomenon) that happen in particular sequence in order to achieve a specific outcome. These can be categorized into non-instructional processes (such as a process analyses of how an internal combustion engine works, or natural processes like photosynthesis) and instructional process (such as recommended/required procedures and explicit step-by-step instructions to be followed—see section on writing instructions for more information).Definitions: clarify the specific meaning, often related to a specific context, or express the essential nature of the terms being defined. These can range in length from a simple clarifying phrase to an extended document of several pages. Definitions will often include detailed descriptions and visuals to illustrate ideas. Click on the link below to view a student PowerPoint presentation on how to write effective definitions for technical purposes. This presentation is included with express permission of the student. [1]Writing Technical DescriptionsBefore you begin to write a technical description, consider carefully how the audienceand the purposeof the document will affect what you write. Your sense of your audience will determine not only how technical your vocabulary should be but also how long your sentences and paragraphs should be.Another audience-related factor is your use of visuals. Less knowledgeable readers may need simple graphics; they might have trouble understanding complicated schematics or charts. As you consider your audience, think about whether any of your readers are from other cultures and might therefore expect different topics, organization, or writing style in the description.Consider your purpose: What are you trying to accomplish with this description? If you want your readers to understand how a personal computer works, write a general description that applies to several brands and sizes of computers. If you want your readers to understand how a specific computer works, write a description specific to that computer. Your purpose will determine every aspect of the description, including its length, the amount of detail, and the number and type of graphics.Drafting Effective Descriptions There is no single organization or format used for descriptions. Because descriptions are written for different audiences and different purposes, they can take many shapes and forms. However, the following four suggestions will guide you in most situations:Indicate clearly the nature and scope of the descriptionIntroduce the description clearlyProvide appropriate detailEnd the description with a brief conclusionIndicate Clearly the Nature and Scope of the DescriptionIf the description is to be a separate document, give it a title. If the description is to be part of a longer document, give it a section heading. In either case, clearly state the subject and indicate whether the description is general or particular. For instance, a general description of an object might be titled “Description of a Minivan,” and a particular description, “Description of the 2015 Honda Odyssey.” A general description of a process might be called “Description of the Process of Designing a New Production Car,” and a particular description, “Description of the Process of Designing the Chevrolet Malibu.”Introduce the Description Clearly Start with a general overview: you want to give readers a broad understanding of the object, mechanism, or process. Consider adding a graphic that introduces the overall concept. For example, in describing a process, you might include a flowchart summarizing the steps in the body of the description; in describing an object, such as a bicycle, you might include a photograph or a drawing showing the major components you will describe in detail in the body.Provide Appropriate DetailIn the body of the description, treat each major part or step as a separate item. In describing an object or a mechanism, define each part and then, if applicable, describe its function, operating principle, and appearance. In discussing the appearance, include shape, dimensions, material, and physical details such as texture and color (if essential). In describing a process, treat each major step as if it were a separate process.A description can have not only parts or steps but also subparts or substeps. For example, a description of a computer system will include the keyboard as one of its main parts. The description of the keyboard will include the numeric keypad as one of its subparts, and a description of the numeric keypad will include the arrow keys as one of its subparts. The same principle applies in describing processes: if a step has substeps, you need to describe who or what performs each substep.Conclude the DescriptionA typical description has a brief conclusion that provides an overall summary of the item. One common technique for concluding descriptions of some mechanisms and objects is to state briefly how the parts function together. A professional description usually has a brief paragraph summarizing the principal steps or discussing the importance or implications of the process.Structuring an Item DescriptionAsk yourself the following questions as you compose your description to help give it a structure:What is the item? You might start with a sentence definition. EXAMPLE: “The electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to create an image of the target. It has much higher magnification power than normal microscopes.”What is the function of the item? If the function is not implicit in the sentence definition, state it. EXAMPLE: “Electron microscopes magnify objects that are smaller than the wavelengths of visible light.”What does the item look like? Sometimes an object is best pictured with both graphics and words. Include a photograph or drawing if possible. *If you cannot use a graphic, use an analogy or comparison. EXAMPLE: “The USB drive is a plastic- or metal-covered device, about the size of a pack of gum, with a removable cap that covers the type-A USB connection.” Mention the material, texture, color, and other physical characteristics, if relevant.How does the item work? In a few sentences, describe how the item works (sometimes objects do not work; they merely exist). EXAMPLE: “The USB drive is simply inserted into any available USB port on the computer to allow for file transfers between devices.”What are the principal parts of the item? Limit your description to the principal parts. A description of a bicycle, for instance, would not mention the dozens of nuts and bolts that hold the mechanism together; it would focus on the chain, gears, pedals, wheels, and frame. EXAMPLE: “The MIG welder has a power switch, a speed selector, a voltage selector, a pressure regulator, a ground clamp, and a standard trigger handle and tip.”You may find that some of these elements are not necessary; again, consider what your target audience already knows. Strive to strike a balance between unnecessarily stating the obvious and incorrectly assuming your readers have knowledge that they lack.Once you have your purpose and audience clearly in focus, draft a technical description that includes the following elements:Definition: What is it, and what is its main purpose?Overview: Describe the mechanism’s overall appearance (“big picture”).Components: Describe the main component parts in labeled sections; consider the order of information carefully here. Create a logical connection between each component described.Explanation: how do the parts work together to fulfill its function? What key principles govern its functioning? Consider how much detail is necessary here for your intended audience.Visuals: include graphics that clearly illustrate the mechanism and/or its parts. Show the device as a whole; consider showing specific details in expanded views, cut-aways, or labeled diagrams. You may even embed or link to videos showing the device in action.Conclusion: depending on the purpose, you might review product’s history, availability, manufacturing, costs, warnings, etc.)References: Sources you have used in your description, or additional sources of information available (if relevant).Revising Technical Descriptions In refining the details of your description and its component parts, consider the following:Organization: Use a logical principle to organize your description Top to bottom (or foundation upward)Left to right (or right to left)Inside to outside (or outside to inside)Most important to least important featuresCentral component to peripheralsMaterial properties, etc.Language: Use specific, precise, concrete terms and avoid vague or overly-general terms Use correct terminology – define terms as necessary for your audienceUse analogy to describe an unfamiliar thing in terms of a familiar thingUse objective language – no “ad speak” or subjective termsUse present tense, active verbs to describe how the device appears and what it doesUse words that create vivid and specific pictures in the reader’s mind.Here’s an example of a student’s technical description assignment for explaining GPS.Additional Resources“Technical Description” Online Technical Writing“Technical Definition and Description” Penn State University, Technical Writing, Fall 2013CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Technical Descriptions." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 7.3 ProposalsProposals are among the most common types of technical writing found in the workplace, in academia, and in the wider community. A proposal is a document that tries to persuade the reader to implement a proposed plan or approve a proposed project. Most businesses rely on effective proposal writing to ensure the success of the business and to acquire new clients or contracts. The writer tries to convince the reader that the proposed plan or project is worth doing (worth the time, energy, and expense necessary to implement or see through) and that it will result in tangible benefits. Knowing how to write an effective proposal is a vital skill for technical communicators. Proposals must be convincing, logical, and credible; to achieve this, technical writers must consider their audience, purpose and tone.In a technical writing course, the proposal assignment is an opportunity to present an idea to a specific audience about improving some aspect of that company or organization. Whatever the topic, it’s important to research your topic fully and integrate that research into your final proposal.Proposal Purposes & PartsProposals are often written in response to a Request for Proposals (RFPs) by a government agency, organization, or company. OThe requesting body receives multiple proposals responding to their request, reviews the submitted proposals, and chooses the best one(s) to go forward. Thus, your proposal must persuade the reader that your idea is the one most worth pursuing. Proposals are persuasive documents intended to initiate a project and get the reader to authorize a course of action proposed in the document. These might include proposals to:Perform a task (such as a feasibility study, a research project, etc.)Propose a new or improved productProvide a serviceProposals can have various purposes and thus take many forms, but most have sections such as the following listed in Table 7.3 (the order may vary depending on audience, purpose, and situation):TABLE 7.3: Business Proposal PartsPROPOSAL PARTSFUNCTION1. Cover PageTitle page with name, title, date, and specific reference to request for proposal if applicable2. Executive SummaryLike an abstract in a report, this is a one- or two-paragraph summary of the product or service and how it meets the requirements and exceeds expectations.3. BackgroundDiscuss the history of your product, service, and/or company and consider focusing on the relationship between you and the potential buyer and/or similar companies.4. ProposalThe idea. Who, what, where, when, why, and how. Make it clear and concise. Don’t waste words and don’t exaggerate. Use clear, well-supported reasoning to demonstrate your product or service.5. Market AnalysisWhat currently exists in the marketplace, including competing products or services, and how does your solution compare?6. BenefitsHow will the potential buyer benefit from the product or service? Be clear, concise, and specific, as well as provide a thorough list of immediate, short-, and long-term benefits to the company.7. TimelineA clear presentation, often with visual aids, of the process from start to finish with specific, dated benchmarks noted.8. Marketing PlanDelivery is often the greatest challenge for online services—how will people learn about you? If you are bidding on a gross lot of food service supplies, this may not apply to you, but if an audience is required for success, you will need a marketing plan.9. BudgetWhat are the initial costs, when can revenue be anticipated, when will there be a return on investment (if applicable)? Again, the proposal may involve a one-time fixed cost, but if the product or service is to be delivered more than once, an extended financial plan noting costs across time is required.10. ConclusionLike a speech or essay, restate your main points clearly. Tie them together with a common them and make your proposal memorable.Four Kinds of ProposalsSolicited Proposals: an organization identifies a situation or problem that it wants to improve or solve and issues an RFP (Request for Proposals) asking for proposals on how to address it. The requesting organization will vet proposals and choose the most convincing one, often using a detailed scoring rubric or weighted objectives chart to determine which proposal best responds to the request.Unsolicited Proposals: a writer perceives a problem or an opportunity and takes the initiative to propose a way to solve the problem or take advantage of the opportunity (without being requested to do so). This can often be the most difficult kind of proposal to get approved.Internal Proposals: these are written by and for someone within the same organization. Since both the writer and reader share the same workplace context, these proposals are generally shorter than external proposals, and usually address some way to improve a work-related situation (productivity, efficiency, profit, etc.). As internal documents, they are often sent as memos, or introduced with a memo if the proposal is lengthy.External Proposals: these are sent outside of the writer’s organization to a separate entity (usually to solicit business). Since these are external documents, they are usually sent as a formal report (if long), introduced by a cover letter (letter of transmittal). External proposals are usually sent in response to a Request for Proposals, but not always.*Proposal assignments in technical writing classes generally do the following:Identify and define the problem to be solved or the opportunity that can be taken advantage of. You must show that you clearly understand the problem/situation if you are to convince the reader that you can solve it.Describe your proposed project, clearly defining the scope of what you propose to do. Often, it is best to give a general overview of your idea, and then break it down into more detailed sub-sections.Indicate how your proposed solution will solve the problem and provide tangible benefits. Specifically, indicate how it will meet the objectives and abide by the constrains outlined in the problem definition. Give specific examples. Show the specific differences between “how things are now” and “how they could be.” Be as empirical as possible, but appeal to all appropriate persuasive strategies. Emphasize results, benefits, and feasibility of your proposed idea.Include the practical details: propose a budget and a timeline for completing your project. Represent these graphically (budget table, and Gantt chart). Your timeline should include the major milestones or deliverables of the project, as well as dates or time frames for completion of each step.Conclude with a final pitch that summarizes and emphasizes the benefits of implementing your proposed idea – but without sounding like an advertisement.Additional Proposal Elements to ConsiderDescribe your qualifications to take on and/or lead this project; persuade the reader that you have the required skills, experience, and expertise to complete this job.Decide what graphics to use to illustrate your ideas, present data, and enhance your pitch.Include secondary research to enhance your credibility and the strength of your proposal.Choose the proper format, which could be a memo to an internal audience or a formal report to an external audience.Ethos, Pathos, and LogosEthos refers to credibility, pathos to passion and enthusiasm, and logos to logic or reason. All three elements are integral parts of a business proposal. Your credibility may be unknown to the potential client, so it is your job to establish that credibility by referencing previous clients, demonstrating order fulfillment, and clearly describing your product or service. By association, if your organization appears credible, your audience is more likely to view the product or service as being credible as well.In the same way, if you are not enthusiastic about the product or service, your audience will likely not be either. Think about the following audience questions:Why should the potential client get excited?How does your solution stand out in the marketplace?Why should they consider you?Why should they continue reading?Passion and enthusiasm are achieved by demonstrating your thorough understanding, your dedication to the project, and your interest.Credibility is also established by supporting each assertion, not making baseless claims about your product or service, and showing your audience how the claims you make are true and relevant. Make sure you also cite sources when you use outside support. It’s helpful to use the common “According to your points. Be detailed and specificLanguage ConsiderationsProposals are fundamentally persuasive documents, so paying attention to the rhetorical situation—position of the reader (upward, lateral, downward or outward communication), the purpose of the proposal, the form, and the tone—is paramount.Clearly define your purpose and audience before you begin to writeBe sure you have done research so you know what you are talking aboutRemain positive and constructive: you are seeking to improve a situationBe solution oriented; don’t blame or dwell on the negativeMake your introduction very logical, objective, and empirical; don’t start off sounding like an advertisement or sounding biased; avoid logical fallaciesUse primarily logical and ethical appeals; use emotional appeals sparinglyProposal ScenariosIt is easy to get confused about proposals, and some students new to technical writing may have never given much thought to producing a proposal. Here are a few sample topics:Imagine that a company has a problem or wants to make some sort of improvement. The company sends out a request for proposals, and you respond with a proposal. You offer to come in, investigate, interview, make recommendations—and present it all in the form of a report.An organization wants a seminar in your expertise. You write a proposal to give the seminar—included in the package deal is a guide or handbook that the people attending the seminar will receive.An agency has just started using a new online data system, but the user’s manual is technically complex and difficult to read. You receive a request for proposals from this agency to write a simplified guide or startup guide.Imagine that a nonprofit organization focused on a particular issue wants an consultant to write a handbook or guide for its membership. This document will present information on the issue in a way that the members can understand.Proposal SamplesThe following proposal samples come from David McMurrey’s Online Technical Writing textbook:Proposal 1: Elementary School GardenProposal 2: Nursing Staff HandbookProposal 3: Student Guide for Solving Engineering Mechanics Problems Additional Resources“Proposals” from Online Technical Writing.“How to Write a Business Proposal,” a guide from Venngage.com“Reports, Proposals, and Technical Documents,” a slideshow guide from the Purdue OWL CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Proposals." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY 4.0]"7.4 Proposals." Communication at Work. [License: CC BY 4.0]"Proposals." Technical Writing. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter 7.4 Technical ReportsLonger technical reports can take on many different forms (and names), but most, such as recommendation and evaluation reports, do essentially the same thing: they provide a careful study of a situation or problem, and often recommend what should be done to improve that situation or problem.The structural principle fundamental to these types of reports is this: you provide not only your recommendation, choice, or judgment, but also the data, analysis, discussion, and the conclusions leading to it. That way, readers can check your findings, your logic, and your conclusions to make sure your methodology was sound and that they can agree with your recommendation. Your goal is to convince the reader to agree with you by using your careful research, detailed analysis, rhetorical style, and documentation.Composing ReportsWhen creating a report of any type, the general problem-solving approach works well for most technical reports; the steps below in Table 7.4, generally coincide with how you organize your report’s information.TABLE 7.41. Identify the needWhat is the “unsatisfactory situation” that needs to be improved?2. Identify the criteria for responding to the needWhat is the overall goal?What are the specific, measurable objectives any solution should achieve?What constraints must any solution adhere to?3. Determine the solution options you will examineDefine the scope of your approach to the problem.Identify the possible courses of action that you will examine in your report. You might include the consequences of simply doing nothing.4. Study how well each option meets the criteriaSystematically study each option, and compare how well they meet each of the objectives you have set.Provide a systematic and quantifiable way to compare how well to solution options meet the objectives (weighted objectives chart).5. Draw conclusions based on your analysisBased on the research presented in your discussion section, sum up your findings and give a comparative evaluation of how well each of the options meets the criteria and addresses the need.6. Formulate recommendations based on your conclusionIndicate which course of action the reader should take to address the problem, based on your analysis of the data presented in the report.Structuring ReportsYour report will be divided into several sections that will likely include most or all of the following structural elements:INTRODUCTION: The introduction should clearly indicate the document’s purpose. Your introduction should discuss the “unsatisfactory situation” that has given rise to this report (in other words, the reason(s) for the report), and the requirements that must be met. Your reader may also need some background. Finally, provide an overview of the contents of the report. The following section provides additional information on writing report introductions.TECHNICAL BACKGROUND: Some recommendation or feasibility reportsmay require technical discussion in order to make the rest of the report meaningful. The dilemma with this kind of information is whether to put it in a section of its own or to fit it into the comparison sections where it is relevant. For example, a discussion of power and speed of tablet computers is going to necessitate some discussion of RAM, megahertz, and processors. Should you put that in a section that compares the tablets according to power and speed? Should you keep the comparison neat and clean, limited strictly to the comparison and the conclusion? Maybe all the technical background can be pitched in its own section—either toward the front of the report or in an appendix.REQUIREMENTS AND CRITERIA: A critical part of feasibility and recommendation reports is the discussion of the requirements (objectives and constraints) you’ll use to reach the final decision or recommendation. Here are some examples:If you’re trying to recommend a tablet computer for use by employees, your requirements are likely to involve size, cost, hard-disk storage, display quality, durability, and battery function.If you’re looking into the feasibility of providing every student at Linn-Benton Community College with a free transportation pass, you’d need define the basic requirements of such a program—what it would be expected to accomplish, problems that it would have to avoid, how much it would cost, and so on.If you’re evaluating the recent implementation of a public transit system in your area, you’d need to know what was originally expected of the program and then compare (see “Comparative Analysis” below) its actual results to those requirements.Requirements can be defined in several ways:Numerical Values: many requirements are stated as maximum or minimum numerical values. For example, there may be a cost requirement—the tablet should cost no more than $900.Yes/No Values: some requirements are simply a yes-no question. Does the tablet come equipped with Bluetooth? Is the car equipped with voice recognition?Ratings Values: in some cases, key considerations cannot be handled either with numerical values or yes/no values. For example, your organization might want a tablet that has an ease-of-use rating of at least “good” by some nationally accepted ratings group. Or you may have to assign ratings yourself.The requirements section should also discuss how important the individual requirements are in relation to each other. Picture the typical situation where no one option is best in all categories of comparison. One option is cheaper; another has more functions; one has better ease-of-use ratings; another is known to be more durable. Set up your requirements so that they dictate a “winner” from a situation where there is no obvious winner.DISCUSSION OF SOLUTION OPTIONS: In certain kinds of feasibility or recommendation reports, you’ll need to explain how you narrowed the field of choices down to the ones your report focuses on. Often, this follows right after the discussion of the requirements. Your basic requirements may well narrow the field down for you. But there may be other considerations that disqualify other options—explain these as well.Additionally, you may need to provide brief technical descriptions of the options themselves. In this description section, you provide a general discussion of the options so that readers will know something about them. The discussion at this stage is not comparative. It’s just a general orientation to the options. In the tablets example, you might want to give some brief, general specifications on each model about to be compared (see below).COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: One of the most important parts of a feasibility or recommendation report is the comparison of the options. Remember that you include this section so that readers can follow the logic of your analysis and come up with different conclusions if they desire. This comparison can be structured using a “block” (whole-to-whole) approach, or an “alternating” (point-by-point) approach.The comparative section should end with a conclusion that sums up the relative strengths and weaknesses of each option and indicates which option is the best choice in that particular category of comparison. Of course, it won’t always be easy to state a clear winner—you may have to qualify the conclusions in various ways, providing multiple conclusions for different conditions. *NOTE: If you were writing an evaluative report, you wouldn’t be comparing options so much as you’d be comparing the thing being evaluated against the requirements placed upon it and/or the expectations people had of it. For example, if you were evaluating your town’s new public transit system, you might compare what the initiative’s original expectations were with how effectively it has met those expectations.SUMMARY TABLE: After the individual comparisons, include a summary table that summarizes the conclusions from the comparative analysis section. Some readers are more likely to pay attention to details in a table (like the one above) than in paragraphs; however, you still have to write up a clear summary paragraph of your findings.CONCLUSIONS: the conclusions section of a feasibility or recommendation report ties together all of the conclusions you have already reached in each section. In other words, in this section, you restate the individual conclusions. For example, you might note which model had the best price, which had the best battery function, which was most user-friendly, and so on. You could also give a summary of the relative strengths and weakness of each option based on how well they meet the criteria.The conclusions section must untangle all the conflicting conclusions and somehow reach the final conclusion, which is the one that states the best choice. Thus, the conclusion section first lists the primary conclusions—the simple, single-category ones. Then it must state secondary conclusions—the ones that balance conflicting primary conclusions. For example, if one tablet is the least inexpensive but has poor battery function, but another is the most expensive but has good battery function, which do you choose and why? The secondary conclusion would state the answer to this dilemma.RECOMMENDATIONS: the final section states recommendations and directly address the problem outlined in the introduction. These may at times seem repetitive, but remember that some readers may skip right to the recommendation section. Also, there will be some cases where there may be a best choice but you wouldn’t want to recommend it. Early in their history, laptop computers were heavy and unreliable—there may have been one model that was better than the rest, but even it was not worth having. You may want to recommend further research, a pilot project, or a re-design of one of the options discussed.The recommendation section should outline what further work needs to be done, based solidly on the information presented previously in the report and responding directly to the needs outlined in the beginning. In some cases, you may need to recommend several ranked options based on different possibilities. For more information on what technical reports are and how to write them, watch “Technical Report Meaning and Explanation” from The Audiopedia:Thumbnail for the embedded element "What is TECHNICAL REPORT? What does TECHNICAL REPORT mean? TECHNICAL REPORT meaning & explanation"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=655 Additional Resources“How to Write A Technical Paper” by Michael Ernst, University of Washington“Report Design,” from Online Technical Writing“Engineering Report Guidelines” (PDF example of a style guide for engineers from Technical Writing Essentials)CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Long Reports." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY 4.0]"What is a Technical Report?" Uploaded by The Audiopedia, GCFLearnFree.org, 21 Mar. 2018, Youtube.com.Chapter 7.5 Report IntroductionsWriting Effective Report IntroductionsThink of your report’s introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:What was I studying?Why was this topic important to investigate?What did we know about this topic before I did this study?How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach.Structure and ApproachThe introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:What is this?Why should I read it?What do you want me to do, say, think, or feel?Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis or focus to more specific topical information that provides context before arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it. If applicable, in your introduction you can also touch on the potential outcomes your study will reveal.The following are some of the general phases associated with writing effective introductions:1. Establish an area to research by:Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/orMaking general statements about the topic, and/orPresenting an overview on current research on the subject.2. Identify a research niche by:Opposing an existing assumption, and/orRevealing a gap in existing research, and/orFormulating a research question or problem, and/orContinuing a disciplinary tradition.3. Place your research within the research niche by:Stating the intent of your study,Outlining the key characteristics of your study,Describing important results, andGiving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.*NOTE: Even though the introduction is the first main section of a research paper, it is often useful to finish the introduction late in the writing process because the structure of the paper, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion will have been completed. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper. Figure 7.5 below states the report’s purpose, specifies the report’s intended audience, provides a limited description of the report’s context and background, forecasts the report’s scope, and previews the report’s contents and/or organization:Figure 7.5The Narrative FlowThe following suggestions will help the narrative flow of your introduction:Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest. A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should consist of a general review of the important research (with citations) that lays a foundation for understanding the key elements of your research problem. For more information on using background information, see this USC resource.Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated. When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, “The purpose of this study was to….” or “We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the….”Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.Engaging the ReaderThe overall goal of your introduction is to make your readers want to read your paper, so your introduction should work to grab readers’ attention. The following are a few strategies for engaging your reader:Open with a compelling story.Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected anecdote.Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question.Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity.Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important.Abstracts Some reports or projects require the use of an Abstract (also called a Summary or Executive Summary), which is a brief overview of your report. Abstracts are not the same as introductions, though they’re typically placed at the beginning of a report on their own page just after the Title page (if used). Abstracts are usually written last because they require a complete understanding of the whole report. The Abstract tells the reader the main points of your project to help them decide which specific sections of the report to focus on.Effective Abstracts are clear and concise in their wording, with no unnecessary language. The Abstract should include the following key information:Background of your report (why you did it and/or why the project was necessary)Purpose/Aim of your report project (what you were specifically trying to do)Research (what research you did and/or your procedure or experimental method)Results/FindingsConclusion (or what your results mean)Recommendations (or special considerations for the future)Abstracts often follow the same order as the information in the main report. The Abstract should NOT include:Graphs or tablesPictures or equationsAbbreviations, acronyms or jargonAdditional Resources“Writing A Summary” from Technical Writing Essentials“Writing an Abstract” from Clarion.edu *This page borrows from the following sources: "Research Guides." USC Libraries. Source link."Introductions." Online Technical Writing. Source link.Chapter 7.6 Progress ReportsYou write a progress report to inform a supervisor, associate, or client about progress you have made on a project over a specific period of time. Periodic progress reports are common on projects that go on for several months (or more). Whoever is paying for this project wants to know whether tasks are being completed on schedule and on budget. If the project is not on schedule or on budget, they want to know why and what additional costs and time will be needed.Progress reports answer the following questions for the reader:How much of the work is complete?What part of the work is currently in progress?What work remains to be done?When and how will the remaining work be completed?What changes, problems or unexpected issues, if any, have arisen?How is the project going in general?Purpose of a Progress ReportThe main function of a progress report is persuasive: to reassure clients and supervisors that you are making progress, that the project is going smoothly, and that it will be completed by the expected date—or to give reasons why any of those might not be the case. They also offer the opportunity to do the following:Provide a brief look at preliminary findings or in-progress work on the projectGive your clients or supervisors a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to suggest or request changesGive you a chance to discuss problems in the project and thus to forewarn the recipientsForce you to establish a work schedule, so that you will complete the project on time.Format of a Progress ReportDepending on the size of the progress report, the length and importance of the project, and the recipient, a progress report can take forms ranging from a short informal conversation to a detailed, multi-paged report. Most commonly, progress reports are delivered in following forms:Memo: a short, semi-formal report to someone within your organization (can range in length from 1-4 pages)Letter: a short, semi-formal report sent to someone outside your organizationFormal report: a long, formal report sent to someone within or outside of your organizationPresentation: an oral presentation given directly to the target audienceOrganizational Patterns for Progress ReportsThe recipient of a progress report wants to see what you’ve accomplished on the project, what you are working on now, what you plan to work on next, and how the project is going in general. The information is usually arranged with a focus either on time or on task, or a combination of the two:Focus on time: shows time period (previous, current, and future) and tasks completed or scheduled to be completed in each periodFocus on specific tasks: shows order of tasks (defined milestones) and progress made in each time periodFocus on larger goals: focus on the overall effect of what has been accomplished.Most progress reports are structured using the elements shown in Table 7.6 below:TABLE 7.6: Structural Overview of A Progress ReportINTRODUCTIONReview the details of your project’s purpose, scope, and activities. The introduction may also contain the following: date the project began; date the project is scheduled to be completedpeople or organization working on the projectpeople or organization for whom the project is being doneoverview of the contents of the progress report. PROJECT STATUSThis section (which could have sub-sections) should give the reader a clear idea of the current status of your project. It should review the work completed, work in progress, and work remaining to be done on the project, organized into sub-sections by time, task, or topic. These sections might include: Direct reference to milestones or deliverables established in previous documents related to the projectTimeline for when remaining work will be completedAny problems encountered or issues that have arisen that might affect completion, direction, requirements, or scope. CONCLUSIONThe final section provides an overall assessment of the current state of the project and its expected completion, usually reassuring the reader that all is going well and on schedule. It can also alert recipients to unexpected changes in direction or scope, or problems in the project that may require intervention.REFERENCESInclude references if applicable. Additional ResourcesAnnotated PDF of a Progress Report for a Mycological Growroom from Open Technical Communication“Progress Reports: Tell ’em how it’s going—or not going,” an article by David McMurrey*This page borrows from the following source: "Progress Reports." Technical Writing Essentials. Source link.Chapter 7.7 Feasibility ReportsA feasibility report studies a situation (for example, a problem or opportunity) and a plan for doing something about it, and then determines whether that plan is “feasible”—whether it is practical in terms of current technology, economics, time frame, social needs and preferences, and so on. The feasibility report answers the question “Should we implement Plan X?” by stating “yes,” “no,” or sometimes a “maybe” or “under certain conditions.” Not only does it indicate whether the idea is feasible, it also provides the data and the reasoning behind that determination; conversely, it might outline the reasons why the idea cannot or should not be implemented, or what obstacles must be overcome before the idea can become feasible. Typical questions addressed in these reports includeIs it possible? Can this be done within the allotted budget, time frame, legal and regulatory conditions, and technical capabilities?Is it financially viable? Even if it falls within our budget, should we do it? Will it have long term benefits that outweigh costs? Is there a less expensive or financially risky way to achieving the same result? How does it compare to the cost of doing nothing about this situation?Will it be accepted by the community? Will people be in favor of this idea? Will anyone be opposed to it? How much public support is necessary to make this successful? (What kind of stakeholder consultation might be necessary to determine this?)The investigator will research each solution that the analysis recommended and present the economic (how much will the solution cost), structural (how will the solution fit into the existing physical structure of the company), and operational (how will the solution fit into the existing operation of the company) feasibility of each recommendation. The investigator will rank these according to his/her priority, but presenting the feasibility of all recommendations, giving the pros and cons of each recommendation. This gives the decision makers a choice to choose the solution they believe is right for the company.Elements of a Basic Feasibility ReportBelow are the seven key elements of a feasibility report:Introduction: You need to persuade the decision maker to even consider any sort of alternative. You need to convince them to even read your report first. Tell them what they will gain personally or as an organization by considering your work.Criteria/Constraints: You must specifically map out the criteria of what the ideal outcomes are. This will allow you to make practical and logical decisions. You can present the criteria in your feasibility report in one of two ways. First, you can separate the criteria into its own section. This is best when you have a extensive report and you need to go in-depth with the explanation. Second, you can incorporate the criteria throughout your report as the criteria become relevant. However, it is important to realize that whichever strategy you chose make sure that the criteria is introduced early in the report. It is also very important to map out the constraints of your suggested solutions. This will show the audience that you understand and acknowledge the fact that no solution is perfect. This will also make sure that the audience makes the decision in their best interest.Method: It is very important to present facts that are accurate and relevant. You should state the reliable sources you used and what method they came from (internet,interview, book, etc.). Without a credible research method or credible sources your document itself will lack credibility.Overview of Alternative Options: You must underline the key features of each possible option. Make sure they are easy to understand and presented in a friendly layout. Keep in mind that the goal is to allow your audience to make the best decision.Evaluation: This should be the bulk of your report, you must evaluate the options using the criteria you created. Add graphs, charts, etc. to show that you have studied your options, and have come up with statistics that back up your reasons as to why your alternative beats the competition.Conclusions: State the conclusion you have reached. How did you reach this conclusion? How did you evaluate the alternatives? Why is this solution the best one for your organization?Recommendations: Use your experience, knowledge, and research to state which option you think should be adopted.Structure of a Basic Feasibility ReportThe following is a list of front matter elements included in a typical feasibility report:Cover Page: Use an APA cover page.Transmittal LetterA transmittal letter is sent to the company who requested the feasibility report. Although this letter is sent under separate cover than the Feasibility Report, it is a courtesy to include a copy of the transmittal letter in the Report.This letter tells the need for the feasibility report and the date of completion of the report. The letter includes the background of the project, a reference to the Problem Analysis, and outlines the procedure used to determine the recommendations presented from the feasibility report.Table of ContentsIdentify the sections and their corresponding pages.Executive Summary: Briefly explains the problem, the possible solutions, and the recommendationsEXAMPLE: The purpose of this feasibility research report was to address the problem of ________________. This report offered three alternative solutions to this problem: _________________, ________________, _______________. In addition, the report ranked the alternative solutions, according to its strengths and its benefits. Solution #3, _______ was the first recommendation. Solution # 1 ________________ was the second recommendation. Solution #2, __________ was the third recommendation. The following is a list of the sections that form the body of the feasibility report:Introduction: Write a brief introduction: This section will be from the Problem Analysis. Tell the why you conducted an investigation and theBackground: Explain the problem. This section explains how you know there is a problem. This section will explain why you did the investigation, the findings and conclusion from the Problem Analysis.Purpose: State the specific purpose of the Feasibility Report. For example: The purpose of this report is to address the problem that (the requester is experiencing with state the problem). This report will accomplish this by investigating three alternative solutions to this problem.Research: From the analyses of the articles (Summaries/Responses), copy and paste the summarized sections here. Only paste the summarized sections. You will attach the entire analyses to the end of the report, as appendices. The following is a PDF example of a successful feasibility report:SAMPLE FEASIBILITY REPORT The following video, “What is a Feasibility Study?” from Word Glossary explains feasibility reports and how they differ from business plans:Thumbnail for the embedded element "What is a Feasibility Study?"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=559 Additional Resources“What is a Feasibility Study/Report?“ from Technical and Business Writing“How to Write Feasibility Reports: Purpose, Structure & Content“,” a video from Study.com *This page borrows from the following sources: "Feasibility Report Overview." Technical and Business Writing. Source link."Long Reports." Technical Writing Essentials. Source link.Chapter 7.8 Additional Report TypesIn addition to the reports discussed in the previous sections, there are several other kinds of reports technical communicators should be aware of. This page takes a brief look at some of the most common ones and provides links for more information.Standard Operating Policies and ProceduresThese are the operating documents for organizations; they contain rules and regulations on how the organization and its members are expected to perform. Policies and procedures are like instructions, but they go much further. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are more for procedures in which a process is performed—for example, taking a dental impression.For more information and examples, see “Standard Operating Procedures” from Online Technical Writing and the EPA’s guide to writing SOPs.Recommendation and Evaluation ReportsRecommendation reports are similar in nature to feasibility reports in that they compare several options and make recommendations but may not be as involved as a feasibility report. Evaluation reports assess value and worth and pass judgement based on a set of requirements or criteria.For more information on writing evaluation reports, see the CDC’s comprehensive guide “Developing an Effective Evaluation Report.”Technical Guides and HandbooksTechnical guides and handbooks are similar to instructions and technical reporting but tend to differ somewhat in purpose and audience.Handbooks and manuals are the most common form of documentation in the business environment used to instruct and guide employees on technical procedures, corporate policies, and many other kinds of information that is not intuitively obvious or easy to remember. Without them, employees would lose a valuable reference source and businesses would suffer from a variety of problems, ranging from untrained workers to liability lawsuits.Some people make sharp distinctions between what is a manual and what is a handbook, but in practice there is substantial overlap. By convention, certain types of publications are more frequently called manuals, notably in technical documentation for software programs and for machine operation. However, these same sorts of publications may be termed users’ guides, help guides, reference books, or something else altogether. To view an example of a user’s guide, see Apple’s iBooks app guide.For more information on technical guides and handbooks, see “Handbooks,” from Online Technical Writing.Primary Research ReportsThis type of report presents findings and interpretation from laboratory or field research you have completed. The primary research report presents original research data—no matter whether that data was generated in a laboratory or out in the field.For more information and examples, see “Primary Research Report” in Online Technical Writing and “Lab Reports” in Technical Writing Essentials.Business Plans & ProposalsThis type is a proposal to start a new business. Much like a proposal, a business plan makes the case for starting a business, service, or product. Business plans are designed to secure funding to start a new business or to change a business in some significant way. Business plans are important documents for business partners who need to agree upon their plans, government officials who need to approve that plan, and of course potential investors, such as banks or private individuals, who may fund the business.For additional information on writing business plans, see the articles “A Guide to Writing Your First Business Plan” from ZenBusiness.com.Technical SpecificationsThis type of report presents descriptive and operational details on a new or updated product. Technical specifications are descriptions of products or product requirements. You typically see specifications in the documentation that comes in the package with certain kinds of products, for example, CD players or computers. These describe the key technical characteristics of the item. But specifications are also written as a way of “specifying” the construction and operational characteristics of something. They can provide details for the design, manufacture, testing, installation, and use of a product. When you write specifications, accuracy, precision of detail, and clarity are critical. Poorly written specifications can cause a range of problems and lead to lawsuits.To see a sample of technical specifications for designing and constructing a birdhouse, click here.Additional Resources“A Basic Guide to Writing Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs),” from The FDA Group“How to Write a Business Plan You’ll Actually Use” by Desirae Odjick“Recommendation and Feasibility Reports“ *This page borrows from the following source:Online Technical Writing. Source link.PART VIIICH 8: Grammar & StyleSo far we have discussed the importance of writing with a purpose and audience in mind. This chapter will look at style and usage in technical writing, including precision, conciseness, sentence structure,tone, parallel construction, and active vs. passive voice. The end of the chapter will offer a few guidelines for self-editing your writing, and the final pages have a few punctuation lessons, including possession and correct comma usage.Anything you write is designed to be read. That is its first and foremost purpose. Thus, increasing readability means increasing the functionality of your document in terms of both content and document design—making it “user friendly.” If your document is difficult to read because vocabulary, sentence structure, paragraphing, organization, or formatting is unclear, your reader will likely stop reading.When it comes to technical communications, style should be concise, precise, direct, and well organized. The following sections offer useful tips, but know that these are only a starting point. Writing style is something you must be aware of and continually work to refine as you develop your communication skills.A technical communications writing style prioritizes the efficient transfer of information—this may be a change from the types of writing you have done in the past. Much of the writing done in high school tends to be descriptive and expository essays with length requirements. Technical communication asks you to document information and communicate it in a concise, precise, and professional way. The focus tends to be more on how well the writing achieves that goal rather than on proving that you read or understand something.To be a successful technical writer, you must be attentive to the ways your writing style needs to vary from one situation to the next.Understanding Writing StyleTo understand what “writing style” is, think about all the different ways people talk. With their tone of voice, volume, and speed of delivery, they are able to project different moods, personalities, and purposes. Think about how a person sounds while they’re telling a funny story. Then think about how a person sounds while telling you about their problems.You might also intuitively know that certain ways of speaking are appropriate for some situations, but not for others. If you wanted to deliver a passionate speech to persuade your audience to vote for you, you certainly wouldn’t want to sound like you were delivering a eulogy at a funeral (or vice versa).Those same concepts apply to your writing. How you deliver information—the voice, tone, mood of your writing—is the “style.” It affects how well your audience will understand and respond to the information you are trying to communicate. Since writing style affects how your reader responds, be aware of and use it to help you achieve your purpose.In most situations, you must also communicate in the style your reader expects. This is often driven by genre (type of document) and context. If you are asked to produce a lab report, your reader will have certain expectations about what goes in it, and if you don’t meet those expectations, it will reflect poorly on you as a communicator and make it less likely that your message is delivered.Since writing style affects how your reader responds, be aware of and use it to help you achieve your purpose.Audience and purpose, then, will always affect your writing style. In this chapter, you will find guidance for developing a general technical communications writing style for documents common to technical communicators. Additional ResourcesHere are some additional helpful hints on writing stylefrom the UK College of Engineering“Style Guides for Technical Writers” from Technical Writing is Easy *This page borrows from the following source: Fundamentals of Engineering Technical Communications. Source link.Chapter 8.1 Communicating with PrecisionTwo key characteristics of professional technical communication are that it is precise and concise. This precision and conciseness must be evident at all levels, from the overall document, to paragraphing, to sentence structure to word choice, and even to punctuation. Every word or phrase should have a distinct and useful purpose. If it doesn’t, cut it or revise.The 7 Cs of Professional WritingThe 7 C’s are simply seven words that begin with C and characterize strong professional style. Applying the 7 C’s of professional communication will result in writing that is:ClearCoherentConciseConcreteCorrectCompleteCourteousCLEAR writing involves knowing what you want to say before you say it because often a lack of clarity comes from unclear thinking or poor planning; this, unfortunately, leads to confused or annoyed readers. Clear writing conveys the purpose of the document immediately to the reader; it matches vocabulary to the audience, avoiding jargon and unnecessary technical or obscure language while at the same time being precise. In clarifying your ideas, ensure that each sentence conveys one idea, and that each paragraph thoroughly develops one unified concept.COHERENT writing ensures that the reader can easily follow your ideas and your train of thought. One idea should lead logically into the next through the use of transitional words and phrases, structural markers, planned repetition, sentences with clear subjects, headings that are clear, and effective and parallel lists. Writing that lacks coherence often sounds “choppy” and ideas seem disconnected or incomplete. Coherently connecting ideas is like building bridges between islands of thought so the reader can easily move from one idea to the next.CONCISE writing uses the least words possible to convey the most meaning while still maintaining clarity. Avoid unnecessary padding, awkward phrasing, overuse of “to be” forms (is, are, was, were, am, be, being), long preposition strings, vagueness, unnecessary repetition and redundancy. Use active verbs whenever possible, and take the time to choose a single word rather than a long phrase or cliched expression. Think of your word count like a budget; be cost effective by making sure every word you choose does effective work for you. Cut a word, save a buck! As William Zinsser asserts, “the secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its cleanest components” (source link).CONCRETE writing involves using specific, precise language to paint a picture for your readers so that they can more easily understand your ideas. If you have to explain an abstract concept or idea, try to use examples, analogies, and precise language to illustrate it. Use measurable descriptors whenever possible; avoid vague terms like “big” or “good.” Try to get your readers to “see” your ideas by using specific terms and descriptions.CORRECT writing uses standard English punctuation, sentence structure, usage, and grammar. Being correct also means providing accurate information, as well as using the right document type and form for the task.COMPLETE writing includes all requested information and answers all relevant questions. The more concrete and specific you are, the more likely your document will be complete as well. Review your checklist of specifications before submitting your document to its intended reader.COURTEOUS writing entails designing a reader-friendly, easy-to-read document; using tactful language and appropriate modes of addressing the audience; and avoiding potentially offensive terminology, usage, and tone. As we have discussed in an early section, without courtesy you cannot be constructive. Figure 8.1 illustrates one method of putting all the 7Cs together:An ordered list of all the 7Cs with summarized tips for each one.Figure 8.1: Putting all the 7Cs togetherAlways give priority to being clear: writing that lacks clarity cannot be understood and therefore cannot achieve its purpose. Writing that adheres to the 7 Cs helps to establish your credibility as a technical professional. Additional Resources“Technical Writing Style.” Wikiversity“Professional Style.” Technical Writing Essentials*This page borrows from the following source: "Communicating with Precision." Technical Writing Essentials. Source link.Chapter 8.2 ConcisenessSuccessful technical writing is concise. Once you have written a solid draft, a document that has been well researched, take a step back and question whether or not you can delete half of the words. In a world where billions of instant messages and emails are sent daily, brevity is a virtue. Readers appreciate concise writing. They respect writers who can explain difficult matters simply.Conciseness Improves FlowUnfortunately, many writers use sentences that are too wordy. This is not to suggest that lengthy sentences can never be used (because they certainly can), but at times writers make the mistake of using more words than necessary to get their message across.EXAMPLE:Michelle was supposed to have her car’s oil changed every 3,000 miles, and since it had been 3,000 miles since her last oil change, she took her car to the mechanic.The above sentence makes sense, though the statement could be more precise if it were phrased a little differently. Describing the action first, followed by the reason, would improve it:Michelle got an oil change because it had been 3,000 miles since her last one.The above sentence conveys the same message and is more succinct and direct. True, the sentence omits certain parts: that Michelle “was supposed to have her car’s oil changed every 3,000 miles,” but we know this already (or can presume so) from the word “because.” The sentence also omits “she took her car to the mechanic,” because it’s obvious—mechanics typically perform oil changes. However, if it’s important for readers to know that she went to a mechanic, then it should be kept.The first sentence example isn’t wrong; it just has some superfluous wording, which can disrupt your writing’s flow. Just as machines don’t have extra parts, sentences shouldn’t have extra words.EXAMPLE:Writing that is redundant and states the obvious and says the same thing over and over again is irritating for readers who want writers to get to the point right away. On the other hand, as I am sure you can understand, it is equally important for writers to avoid confusion when they write and to put down as much information–that is, as many words–as the reader needs in order to understand what the writer means when he or she says what he or she says. Also, of course, when you are writing, it is important for you to remember that readers are reading your words and that you need to be somewhat entertaining–even when the subject is technical when conveying information, so that your readers will keep reading and not go off and do something else like play ice hockey.The above passage is unnecessarily wordy, imprecise, and, at times, confusing. It can be distilled into a single sentence as shown below: Writers should balance conciseness with voice and the reader’s need for information. Redundancy Reduces ConcisenessWriting concisely also involves avoiding redundancies. Redundancy happens when you use more words than necessary to express something, especially words and/or phrases in the same sentence that mean the same thing. Many writers are guilty of violating this rule at times, especially in their daily conversations. However, as you proofread your papers, try to double-check them for unnecessary phrases that you can omit or edit.Here are some examples of redundant phrases:“small in size” or “large in size”“true facts”“basic fundamentals”“past history”“evolve over time”“consensus of opinion”If you think about what’s being said in each of the above phrases, you can catch the redundancies: if something is small, for example, it’s small—you don’t need to tack on “in size” for clarification. If an event took place in history, then you don’t need to specify that it took place in “past history” (all history is past). If something is a “fact,” then by definition it’s true.Here are some additional examples of words and phrases that can often be pruned for clarity:“kind of”“sort of”“really”“basically”“for all intents and purposes”“actually”“generally”Eliminating Wordiness Improves ClarityHere are a few methods to practice to help make your writing clearer and more concise:Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiersWriters sometimes clog up their prose with one or more extra words or phrases that seem to determine narrowly or to modify the meaning of a noun but don’t actually add to the meaning of the sentence. Although such words and phrases can be meaningful in the appropriate context, they are often filler and can easily be eliminated.EXAMPLE:WORDYMORE CONCISEAny particular type of dessert is fine with me.Any dessert is fine with me.Being able to balance the budget by Friday is an impossibility without some kind of extra help.Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without extra help. Change phrases into single wordsConvert phrases into single words when possible.EXAMPLE:WORDYMORE CONCISEThe employee who has lots of ambition…The ambitious employee…The department that is showing the best performance…The best-performing department… Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrasesConvert modifying clauses into phrases or single words when possible.EXAMPLE:WORDYMORE CONCISEThe report, which was released recently…The recently released report…All applicants who have expressed some interest in the job at some point must…All job applicants must… Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentencesExpletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb. Such expressions can be rhetorically effective for emphasis in some situations, but overuse or unnecessary use of expletive constructions creates wordy prose.Take the following example: “It is imperative that we find a solution.” The same meaning could be expressed with this more succinct wording: “We must find a solution.” But using the expletive construction allows the writer to emphasize the urgency of the situation by placing the word imperative near the beginning of the sentence, so the version with the expletive may be preferable.Still, you should generally avoid excessive or unnecessary use of expletives. The most common kind of unnecessary expletive construction involves an expletive followed by a noun and a relative clause beginning with that, which, or who. In most cases, you can create a more concise sentence by eliminating the expletive opening, making the noun the subject of the sentence, and eliminating the relative pronoun.EXAMPLE:WORDYMORE CONCISEIt is the governor who signs or vetoes bills.The governor signs or vetoes bills.There are four rules that should be observed:Four rules should be observed:There was a big explosion, which shook the windows, and all the people ran out into the street.A big explosion shook the windows, and people ran into the street. Use active rather than passive verbs (for more information, see the section on active vs passive voice).The active voice emphasizes the person/thing doing the action in a sentence. To make a passive sentence active, put the subject at the beginning and follow it with a verb.EXAMPLE:WORDYMORE CONCISEAn account was opened by Mrs. Simms.Mrs. Simms opened an account.Your figures were checked by the research department.The research department checked your figures. Omit words or phrases that explain the obvious or provide excessive detailIf you find passages that explain or describe in detail what would already be obvious to readers, delete or reword them.EXAMPLE:WORDYMORE CONCISEIt goes without saying that we are acquainted with our policy on filing tax returns, and we have every intention of complying with the regulations that you have mentioned.We intend to comply with your tax-return policy and regulations. Imagine a mental picture of someone who is engaged in the intellectual activity of trying to learn the rules are for playing the game of chess.Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess. Additional Resources“Brevity, Clutter, Concision” from WritingCommons.org.“Writing Concisely.” from George Mason University’s Writing Center. Writingcenter.gmu.edu“Concision” from the Purdue OWL. *This page borrows from the following source: "Writing Concisely and Avoiding Redundancy." WritingCommons.org. Source link.Chapter 8.3 Sentence StructureWhen building anything, it is important to be familiar with the tools you are using. Grammatical elements are the main “tools” you use when when building sentences in longer written works. Thus, it is critical to have some understanding of grammatical terminology in order to construct effective sentences.The two essential parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate (verb portion). The subject refers to the topic being discussed (or the ‘doer’ or ‘agent’ of the sentence), while the verb conveys the action or state of being expressed in the sentence (what the subject does).All clauses must contain both a subject and a verb. Phrases, on the other hand, lack one or both a subject and a verb, so they need to relate to or modify other parts of the sentence. Main clauses, also called independent clauses, can stand on their own and convey an idea. Dependent clauses, also called subordinate clauses, rely on another part of the sentence for meaning and can’t stand on their own.Consider the following example in Table 8.3.1: Table 8.3.1Sentence 1 is a a simple sentence with one subject (The engineers) and one verb (stood). These are followed by three modifying phrases: around the table, looking at the schematics, and for the machine. Consider the following example in Table 8.3.2: After they discussed different options, they decided to redesign the components.Table 8.3.2Sentence 2 is a complex sentence with one dependent and one independent clause each with its own subject-verb combination (they discussed and they decided). The two clauses are joined by the subordinate conjunction, after, which makes the first clause subordinate to (or dependent upon) the second one.Being able to identify the critical parts of the sentence will help you design sentences that have a clear and effective subject-verb relationship. Knowing the components will also help you improve your punctuation. If you would like a more detailed review of sentence structure, visit Purdue’s OWL (Online Writing Lab) Mechanics page.Sentence StructuresThere are four main types of sentence structures: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. In the examples above, Sentence 1 is a simple sentence, while Sentence 2 is complex.SIMPLE SENTENCES have one main clause (one subject + one verb) and any number of phrases. The following are all simple sentences:A simple sentence can be very effective.It makes one direct point.It is good for creating emphasis and clarity.COMPOUND SENTENCES have two or more main clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions (CC) such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS). You can also connect them using a semi-colon or a colon. By coordinating the ideas, you give them equal weight and importance [Subject + verb…, CC then subject +verb].The following sentences are all compound:A compound sentencecoordinates two ideas, and each idea isgiven roughly equal weight.The two ideasare closely related, so they should be kept close together.The two clauses may express a parallel idea, and theymight also have a parallel structure.Compound sentences need coordinating conjunctions, orthey become comma splices, which are a type of run-on.COMPLEX SENTENCES express complex and usually unequal relationships between ideas. One idea is “subordinated” to the main idea by using a “subordinate conjunction” (like while, because, and although); one idea is “dependent” upon the other one for logic and completeness. Complex sentences include one main clause and at least one dependent clause (see Example 2 above). Often, it is stylistically effective to begin your sentence with the dependent clause, and place the main clause at the end for emphasis.The following sentences are complex; they each follow the same structure: Subordinate conjunction + subject + verb (the dependent clause), subject + verb (the main clause)]:Whenyoumake a complex sentence, yousubordinate one idea to another.If youplace the subordinate clause first, you give added emphasis to the main clause at the end.*For more information on using emphasis and subordination in your writing, see the chapter Using Emphasis and Subordination.COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES have at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause. Because a compound-complex sentence is usually quite long, you must be careful that it makes sense; it is easy for the reader to get lost in a long sentence. For more information, watch this video on compound-complex sentences from Kahn Academy.The following sentences are compound-complex:Kate doesn’t like cartoons because they are loud, soshe doesn’t watch them. (independent clause, dependent clause, CC,independent clause)After our trip to the beach, school started back, and I was excited to see my friends. (dependent clause, independent clause, CC, independent clause)The dog started barking, so the cat ran away, andsince I couldn’t keep up, I decided to stop. (independent clause, CC, independent clause, CC, dependent clause, independent clause)Additional Resources“Sentence Structure of Technical Writing” from MIT’s The Mayfield Handbook of Technical Scientific Writing“Sentence Patterns” handoutCHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Sentence Structure." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY-SA]Chapter 8.4 ToneWhen we speak of tone in writing, we’re referring to author’s attitude toward the reader and the subject of the message. Just as your tone of voice can affect how messages are received, writing tone affects readers in the same way.Why Should Tone and Voice be Considered?Figure 8.4.1Writers should consider the audienceand purpose of each assignment and be mindful of the tone and voice they use to communicate with their readers. Sensitivity to the audience’s stance or point of view on a particular topic will affect their perception of the writer as the argument or analysis unfolds; a respectful tone is more likely to reach the audience than one that is condescending.When the goal is to persuade an audience with an opposing view, writers must think carefully and empathically about how their tone and voice will affect their readers.Guidelines for Ensuring an Appropriate ToneBe Confident – You can feel confident if you have carefully prepared and are knowledgeable about the material you wish to express. The manner in which you write should assume a confident tone as well. Consequently, a confident tone will have a persuasive effect on your audience, making readers more inclined to accept your position. Employers are inclined to hire individuals who appear confident and sure of their abilities. This does not mean, though, that you should appear overconfident, as this can easily be interpreted as arrogance.EXAMPLE:Not: You must agree that I am more than qualified for the position. But: My qualifications in accounting and customer service exceed your job requirements.Be Courteous and Sincere – A writer builds goodwill for him or herself by using a tone that is polite and sincere. It is important to strive for sincerity in tone; without it, politeness can sound condescending. Consider the words and phrases you use in your document and how your reader will likely receive them. If you are respectful and honest, readers will be more willing to accept your message, even if it is negative.EXAMPLE:Not: You didn’t read the instructions carefully, thus your system has shut down. But: The system may automatically shut down if any installation errors occur.Figure 8.4.2 shows the relationship between audience, purpose, content, and tone: Figure 8.4.2Just as speakers transmit emotion through voice, writers can transmit through writing a range of attitudes, from excited and humorous to somber and critical. These emotions create connections among the audience, the author, and the subject, ultimately building a relationship between the audience and the text. To stimulate these connections, writers intimate their attitudes and feelings with useful devices, such as sentence structure, word choice, punctuation, and formal or informal language. Keep in mind that the writer’s attitude should always appropriately match the audience and the purpose.Assessing ToneTo assess tone, take time to consider the purpose of your document. When you consider the message and how you wish to express it, the tone should become apparent.Consider these questions related to tone and voice:What is the writing’s stance? Is the intent to inform or to persuade?What tone and voice is most appropriate for the target audience?Are the tone and voice respectful?How can the content be presented so it is informative and persuasive but not condescending?What words demonstrate sensitivity to the audience’s views and feelings?Have any insensitive words or examples been presented that could cause offense to the readers?Additional Resources“Tone in Business Writing,” a guide from the Purdue OWL *This page borrows from the following sources: "How Will Your Reader Respond to This Tone?" Technical Writing. Source link."Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content." Successful Writing. Source link.Figure 8.4.1: Piacquadio, Andrea. Pexels.com.Figure 8.4.2: Successful Writing.Chapter 8.5 Emphasis & SubordinationYou can help your readers to understand which of your ideas you consider most important by using emphasis and subordination. There are a variety of strategies to choose from to emphasize an idea or to subordinate (or de-emphasize) it.Using Sentences to Emphasize or Subordinate IdeasTo emphasize an idea, place it in a short sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. Short and simple sentences most effectively convey important ideas. You can provide further explanation, sufficient examples, or evidence in the sentences that follow.To subordinatean idea, place it in a compound sentence. You can also subordinate an idea by placing it in the middle of your paragraphs, as these tend to receive the least attention.EXAMPLE:Emphasis: Smoking will no longer be permitted in the building. The committee on employee health and safety reached this decision after considering evidence from researchers and physicians on the dangers of second-hand smoke.Subordination: The committee on employee health and safety has finished considering evidence, and they have reached the decision that smoking will no longer be permitted in the building.*Note in the first example that the writer states the main point right away—”Smoking will no longer be permitted in the building”— followed by the reasoning. In the second example, the writer chooses instead to start with the reasoning before stating the main point (effectively subordinating it by pushing it to the end of the sentence). This strategy can be rhetorically effective, especially when delivering bad or unpleasant news—providing the reasons first can cushion the bad news. Be careful not to unintentionally subordinate important ideas or points. Using Diction to Emphasize or Subordinate IdeasThe language you use (or diction or vocabulary) can also suggest how important an idea is. Use phrases such as most important, major, or primary when discussing ideas you want to emphasize, and phrases such as a minor point to consider or less important to discuss ideas you want to subordinate. EXAMPLE:Emphasis: Our primary consideration must be cost.Subordination: A minor consideration is appearance.Using Active or Passive Voice to Emphasize or Subordinate IdeasUse active voice to emphasize the person or thing performing the action; use passive voice to emphasize the action that is being performed.EXAMPLE:Active voice: Scientists have conducted experiments to test the hypothesis.Passive voice: Experiments have been conducted to test the hypothesis.*Generally it’s preferable to use the active voice; however, passive voice can be rhetorically effective in some cases. For instance, note in the active example above how the focus of the sentence (its subject) is on the scientists who have conducted the experiments; in the second example, the focus is on the experiments, thereby emphasizing those and subordinating the scientists.**For more information on using active and passive voice, see the textbook section on Active vs. Passive Voice.Using Physical Page Spacing to Emphasize or Subordinate IdeasThe amount of space you devote to an idea on the page will help convey the idea’s importance to the reader: emphasized ideas tend to be given more space on the page than subordinated ideas.EXAMPLE:Communication is arguably the most import activity in any profession. When preparing a technical document, it is vitally important to understand your audience: Will your report he read by people with a vast knowledge of the subject or by novices just entering the field? Knowing your audience affects the style and scope of your report. In the technical fields, reports are often generated from carrying out an experiment (research) and may be in the form of word-processed document or in a bound log/lab book.Writing reports based on your lab experiments is one approach to creating a technical report.*Note that the first example would appear more important (visually-speaking) to readers simply because there is more information than the second sample.Using Repetition to Emphasize or Subordinate IdeasRepeating important ideas is good way to emphasize them as well. Be careful not to overuse this strategy, as you may lose reader interest.EXAMPLE:Our primary consideration must be cost—cost to build, cost for additional products and supplies, cost for overhead and maintenance, and cost for increased staffing.We are proposing a number of increases for our expansion, an increase in staffing, an increase in sales, an increase in our product line, an increase in our customer base, an increase in customer satisfaction, and an increase of our public visibility.For more information, watch the following video, “Write with Emphasis for a Compelling Style,” from OnTargetEnglish:Thumbnail for the embedded element "Write with emphasis for a compelling style"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=334 Additional Resources“Using Subordination and Coordination” from Handbook for Writers“How to Use Emphasis in Writing” by Stacie Heaps, WritingExprss.com *This page borrows from the following source: "Use Appropriate Emphasis and Subordination." Coursehero.com. Source link.Chapter 8.6 Active vs. Passive VoiceEnglish verbs have two voices—active and passive. New writers often use the passive voice because they think it sounds more professional. However, passive voice, instead of making a paper sound more professional, actually makes the writing unclear, hard to follow, and, at times, even boring. Good writing keeps passive voice to a minimum and uses active voice whenever possible.Active VoiceActive voice occurs when the subject of the sentence performs the action of the sentence. The person or object performing an action is called the agent. In technical writing, it is almost always preferable to put the subject at the front of the sentence, followed by an active verb. Subject-verb constructed sentences are the clearest and most effective way to communicate information.EXAMPLE:Active: The dog bit the man.Active: Jackie’s mother gave her a gift.Passive VoicePassive voice occurs when the subject is the recipient of the action.EXAMPLE:Passive: The man was bitten by the dog.Passive: Jackie was given a gift by her mother.Passive voice also occurs when the agent is missing or left off. For example, consider the following sentence: “Mistakes were made.” This sentence is problematical (and potentially unethical—see previous chapter on ethics) because it leaves out who made the mistakes, thereby deflecting blame and accountability. It essentially shifts the reader’s focus to what happened rather than who or what did it, which in certain situations may work to your advantage.EXAMPLE: Passive: The office was ransacked. and files were stolen (doesn’t specify who or what ransacked it—either because it is unknown or because the writer has chosen to put the focus of the sentence on the office being ransacked rather than who ransacked it).Changing Passive Voice to Active VoiceIdentify the passive verb: find the “to be” verb (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been). Also, you can look for any ‘by the’ phrases (something was done by someone).EXAMPLE: Fred was [to be verb] selected by his peers to serve on the student council.Linda was [to be verb] fired [past participle] by Mr. Richardson.Locate the agent who/that performs the action.EXAMPLE: Fred was selected by his peers to serve on the student council.Linda was fired by Mr. Richardson.Put the agent or doer in at the beginning of the sentence followed by the verb (rearrange the sentence, in other words). EXAMPLE:Fred’s peers selected him to serve on the student council.Mr. Richardson fired Linda.When to Use Passive VoiceNot every passive verb can or should be made active. Sometimes you simply don’t know who or what performed an action (news stories often use passive voice sentences), or you deliberately want to leave out who or what performed an action because it’s obvious or unimportant. Other times you might want to emphasize the recipient, so you would put it at the front in the sentence where it gets the most attention.Tracy was featured on the TV nightly news. (the focus is on Tracy, not the TV nightly news).Ten people were killedin the plane crash (the focus is on the ten people killed, even though the plane crash is the subject).The passive is also used in many expressions where the writer chooses to be vague about assigning responsibility or when the agent is obvious.Flight 107 has been cancelled. (agent is obvious or unimportant)The check was lost in the mail. (agent who lost the letter is unknown)An experimental liver transplant surgery was completed yesterday. (agent is obvious—liver transplant surgeries are typically performed by surgeons. )When you need to use the passive voice, use it. Most of the time, however, you can improve a sentence by changing it from passive to active voice.For more information, watch the following video “Active vs Passive Voice in Your Writing,” from GCFLearnFree.com:Thumbnail for the embedded element "Active vs Passive Voice in Your Writing"A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/lbcctechwriting/?p=339 Exercise: Changing Passive Voice to ActiveIn Table 8.6, convert the following passive voice construction to active voice (for example, “James was chosen by Kathy to be her assistant” would become “Kathy chose James to be her assistant”):TABLE 8.6PASSIVE VOICEACTIVE VOICE REVISION1. This awful mess was made by your friends.1.2. Everyone in need is helped by Michael.2.3. You will be made well by this medicine!3.4. Many inventions were created by Edison.4.5. The article was written by my friend.5.6. Many fine sites are hosted by Software Workshop.6.7. Claudia was enraged by Richard’s sarcastic comments.7.8. Mistakes were made by the politicians.8.9. The reports had been completed by the students.9.10. Revisions are being made by the team.10.Additional Resources“Passive Voice,” from the UNC Writing Center“Active Versus Passive Voice,” an article from Grammarly.com*This page borrows from the following source: "Active vs Passive Voice in Your Writing." GCFLearnFree.com. Source link.Chapter 8.7 Parallel ConstructionParallel construction, (also called Parallelism and Parallel structure) means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This results in clearer and more consistent writing, which helps readers better understand your point.Consider this famous quote from Winston Churchill:“The inherent vice of capitalismis the unequal sharing of blessings; the inherent virtue of socialismis the equal sharing of miseries.”Note Churchill’s use of the same construction in the second part of the sentence as in the first (“inherent vice of capitalism” matches “inherent virtue of socialism” and “is the unequal sharing of blessings” matches “is the equal sharing of miseries“).If Churchill had said instead, “The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessings; socialism’s inherent virtue is sharing miseries equally,” the sentence would be considered a faulty parallelism. The beginning clause sets up an expectation for the reader that a similar construction will follow; when it doesn’t, readers may be confused by the abrupt shift.ParallelStructure ExamplesFaulty parallelism“Science used to be taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is used.” In this version, the first clause sets up an expectation that the second clause will be similarly constructed, but the writer changes the form, creating a faulty parallel; the writer essentially says, “Science used to be taught this way; now this way is used.”Correction“Science used to be taught by the textbook method, while now it is taught by the laboratory method. In this version, the writer has revised the second clause to parallel the first, essentially saying, “Science used to be taught one way; now it is taught another way.”Alternate correction“The textbook method was once used to teach science, while now the laboratory method is used.” In this version, the writer chose to change the first clause to parallel the second: “The textbook method was…” matches “the laboratory method is…”).The following sections provide several instances with examples of where you should pay close attention to parallel construction:Articles and PrepositionsArticles (a, an, the) and prepositions (of, in, by, at, etc.) in a list should either be used only once or be repeated with each term, as shown in Table 8.7.1:TABLE 8.7.1Faulty ParallelismCorrected VersionAlternate CorrectionThe French, the Italians, Spanish, and PortugueseThe French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the PortugueseThe French, Italians, Spanish, and PortugueseIn spring, summer, or in winterIn spring, in summer, or in winterIn spring, summer, or winterCorrelative ExpressionsCorrelative expressions should be followed by the same grammatical construction, as shown in Table 8.7.2 below. The following are examples of correlative expressions:both requires an and;not only requires a but alsoeither requires an orneither requires a norfirst, second, third OR firstly, secondly, thirdly, etc.)TABLE 8.7.2 Faulty ParallelismCorrected VersionAlternate CorrectionIt was both a long ceremony and very tedious.The ceremony was both long and very tedious.It was both a long ceremony and a very tedious reception.It was not only a long class, it was boring.Not only was the class long, but it was also boring.The class was not only long but also boring.First, I will explain the problem. Secondly, I will offer a solution.First, I will explain the problem. Second, I will offer a solution.Firstly, I will explain the problem. Secondly, I will offer a solution.ComparisonsComparisons should also be put into parallel structures whenever possible and appropriate, as shown in Table 8.7.3:TABLE 8.7.3Faulty ParallelismCorrected VersionAlternate CorrectionMy income is smaller than my wife.My income is smaller than my wife’s.My income is smaller than my wife’s income.*In the first corrected version above, the writer leaves off the noun income because the possessive wife’s refers back to ‘my income.’ This is called the noun understood.Verb FormsVerb forms should be kept parallel whenever possible, as shown in Table 8.7.4:TABLE 8.7.4 Parallel VerbsFaulty ParallelismCorrected VersionAlternate CorrectionShe’s hoping to make friends and finding a good job.She’s hoping to make new friends and find a good job.She’s hoping to make new friends and to find a good job.We’re going swimming and then to watch the fireworks.We’re going swimming and then watching the fireworks.We’re going to swim and then watch fireworks. Exercise: Identifying Parallel Construction Which of the following sentences is an example of a properly constructed parallel sentence?1. Let me know if this doesn’t make sense, you have questions, or if you want me to address something specific on your assignment. 2. Let me know if this doesn’t make sense, if you have questions, or if you want me to address something specific on your assignment.3. Let me know if this doesn’t make sense, if you have questions, or want me to address something specific on your assignment.Briefly explain how the sentence is parallel and how the others are not. Additional Resources“Parallel Structure.” Purdue OWL.“Examples of Parallel Construction in Technical Writing,” from Study.com *This page borrows from the following source: "Parallel Structure." CourseHero.com. Source link.Chapter 8.8 Using Verbs EffectivelyVerbsVerbs are powerful words that express action clearly and concisely. Some writers change their use of verbs to nouns, which typically results in writing that is wordy, unclear, and sometimes even hard to read.If you think of your sentence as a machine, then the verb is the engine that makes the machine work. Like machines, sentences can function efficiently or inefficiently, and the use of a strong verb is one way to make them work effectively.Here are some key principles regarding the effective use of verbs in your sentences. While effective sentences may occasionally deviate from the suggestions in this list, try to follow these guidelines as often as possible:Keep the subject and the verb close together; avoid separating them with words or phrases that could create confusion: He walked…Place the verb near the beginning of the sentence and close to the subject: She soon decided…Prefer active verb constructions over passive ones: She bought groceries instead of Groceries were bought by her. Avoid ‘to be verbs (am, is, are, was, were, being, been, be)Avoid turning verbs into nouns, or ‘nominalizations’ (see example below)EXAMPLE:Original: There will be a reduction in services by our administration (nominalization and passive voice).Revision: Our administration will reduce services (eliminates nominalization and uses active voice). Use the verb strength chart below (Table 8.8.1) as a guide to help “elevate” weaker verbs to stronger ones.TABLE 8.8.1 Verb Strength ChartVerb FormsVerb StrengthExamplesCommand or DeclarationSTRONGERWEAKERMaintain the machine properly!Write the report!Active indicativeHe maintains the machine regularly.She writes reports frequently.Active conditionalShe would maintain the machine if he would let her.He would write reports if he had more training.Gerunds (adding ing) & Infinitives (to ___) (these do not function as verbs in your sentence; the actual verbs are highlighted in yellow)While maintaining the machine, he gets quite dirty.Report writing takes skill.It takes a lot of time to maintain this machine.To write effectively, one must get a sense of the audience.Passive & Passive ConditionalThe machine is maintained by him.It would be maintained by her if…The report was written by her.Reports would be written by him if…Nominalizations (verbs turned into abstract nouns) & Participles (nouns or adjectives that used to be verbs)Machine maintenance is dirty work.A well-maintained machine is a thing of beauty.Written work must be free of errors.Resume VerbsWhen crafting your resume, it’s important to pay special attention to your use of verbs. To describe duties and responsibilities, use clear and powerful active verbs, such as:Developed new apprenticeship programImplemented training coursesProvided guidance and advice to new employeesTable 8.8.2 is a helpful list of resume verbs to choose from:TABLE 8.8.2 Resume VerbsPEOPLETHINGSIDEASAccomplishedBuiltCreatedAnalyzedChangedDefinedAdaptedConstructedEducatedAssembledDesignedIllustratedConductedEstablishedImplementedCoordinatedExpandedMaintainedDemonstratedImprovedMonitoredDirectedIncreasedOrganizedManagedPreparedPresentedOrganizedProgrammedRecommendedSupervisedWroteSurveyedAdditional Resources “How to Use Verbs in Technical Writing” from ClickHelp Technical Writing Blog“100+ Strong Verbs That Will Make Your Research Writing Amazing” from Wordvice.com*This page borrows from the following source: "The Importance of Verbs." Technical Writing Essentials. Source link.Chapter 8.9 Basic Self-Editing StrategiesThe following is a guide for editing your own writing. After your draft is complete, use this helpful guide to help you uncover problems in your writing as you perform your final revisions.Basic Editing Advice (for final draft revisions)1. Check to see if you are beginning sentences with this or it. Often these pronouns are ineffective substitutes for the actual subject of the sentence. Ask yourself what the subject of the sentence is and see if you can follow it with a more precise verb.EXAMPLE:“This is Dr. King’s belief (or It is Dr. King’s belief that)” could be changed to “King believes in non-violent direct action,” resulting in a clearer subject and stronger statement, while also eliminating the ‘to be’ verb is. 2. Check for repeated sentence patterns and try to vary your sentence structures. Make changes that honor the complexity of your argument and work to keep your readers’ interest. If, for example, most of your sentence structures consist of clauses connected with and or but.EXAMPLE:“She raised her hand, and the whole class was surprised” could be changed to “The whole class was surprised when she raised her hand.” It’s also helpful to vary sentence structures to more effectively illustrate the relationship between your arguments and evidence.EXAMPLE:“The author’s assertion further illustrates the point that readers appreciate sentence variety.”*For more information on effective sentence writing, see the chapter on Sentence structure. 3. People are animate and should be referred to using the pronouns: who, whom, and whose. Things are inanimate and should be referred to as that,it, orwhich.EXAMPLE:“The students who understand the material are more likely to succeed.” “The rules that we’ve established are for your protection.” 4. Review basic comma use. The following are just a few of the most common uses of the comma. For a more comprehensive look at commas, see the chapter on Commas.Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)EXAMPLE:“He frowned at her as he was leaving, but she did not understand his response.”*Note the comma comes before the conjunction but; if no subject exists in the second clause, leave out the comma (see following example).EXAMPLE:“He frowned at her as he was leaving but wasn’t angry” (the single subject performing both actions here is He).Nonessential/Parenthetical Clauses, Phrases, and WordsEXAMPLE:“My mother, the computer programmer, works late at night to keep up with her work and to support the family.”*Note the commas around the extra information that clarifies the subject but is not necessary for the sentence to make sense. 5. Use a semi-colon when each part of the sentence could stand alone as a sentence (independent clause) but you want to show balance or equivalence between the concepts.EXAMPLE: “Biography tells us about the subject;biographers tell us about themselves through another’s life.” 6. Use a colon when you 1.) introduce a quote with a complete sentence, 2.) introduce a list, or 3.) when the second clause explains the first.EXAMPLES:1. The author makes a compelling point: “Student loan debt is at an all-time high” (citation). 2.There are three things all students should understand: higher education is costly, earning a degree does not necessarily guarantee you a job, and many students don’t end up working in the field of their majors.3. He knew there was a problem:he hadn’t varied his sentence structures well enough. 7. Early on, introduce the full name of the source to which you are responding or using as support.EXAMPLE: “The Banking Concept of Education”by Paolo Freire asserts that…”*Note the inclusion of the author’s full name the first time it’s introduced; following this, you can then refer to them by their last name only (NOT: “Paulo asserts…” BUT: “Freire asserts…”) throughout the rest of your paper. 8. Quotations: Follow the ‘quotation sandwich’ suggestion where you 1.) introduce the quote using the author and title, 2.) add the quote, 3.) explain the quote in your own words, and then 4.) discuss how the quote relates to your overall argument or point (don’t assume your reader will understand the quote, even if it seems obvious to you). EXAMPLE:Paolo Friere in “The Banking Concept of Education” (1) says “The more students work at storing the deposits entrusted to them, the less they develop critical consciousness” (citation) (2), which means… (3) and is relevant to my argument because…(4). 9.Indent quotations of FOUR or more lines: indent ten spaces (or use tabs) from the left and leave out the quotation marks.EXAMPLE:The author explores how art can evoke feelings that might have been unexplored: Just as the physicist’s scrutiny changes the object of perception, so does art transmute experience. One cannot look upon what Kathe Kollwitz has drawn without feeling. The lines around the child are bleak with unreason. Never have I seen so clearly what we call poverty is simply raw exposure to the terror and fragility of life (citation). 10. Pay attention to parallel structure with verb forms and lists and by using articles and prepositions consistently.EXAMPLES:1. He wanted three things out of college: to better his writing, to make friends, and to learn about life.2. The professor praised the students for working hard on their research and revising their final drafts carefully.3. The professor praised the students for working hard on their research and revising their final drafts carefully.4. The year, the date, and the time are all included in the report. 11. Check for proper use of apostrophes in contractions and possessives.EXAMPLES:1. It’s solid paper that she’s worked hard on. (contractions)2. Freire’s essay quotes another researcher’s work. (possession)3. His parents’objections didn’t seem to faze him much. (plural possession) 12. Finally, read your work aloud, either to yourself or to an audience. This seems simple, but it’s one of the most effective ways of editing your own work. We can often hear problems in our writing that we sometimes can’t see, such as areas where the writing doesn’t flow well, the structure needs reorganizing, and/or where there are grammatical or punctuation errors to fix. Reading aloud to an audience can be even more effective in helping to identify problem areas.Additional Resources“How to Edit Your Own Writing,” an article from Harry Guiness at the New York Times“Grammarly” is a writing assistant that flags common writing, spelling and grammatical errors; it’s great for catching simple mistakes and cleaning up drafts of your work.Chapter 8.10 Punctuation: CommasWhen it comes to using commas, you have likely heard the guideline to ‘place a comma wherever there’s a pause.’ This advice is helpful to a degree, but it’s important to understand some of the rules that govern that advice. However, it can seem daunting as a writer to learn and apply the seventeen or so rules for comma usage, so we’re only going to look at a few of the most common ones. It’s helpful to remember the comma’s primary function: it separates. The comma separates complete ideas, descriptive phrases, items in a list, and before and after most transition words.RULE 1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS). The comma comes after the first clause and before the conjunction.EXAMPLES:The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn’t seem to understand.Yesterday was her brother’s birthday, so she took him out to dinner. RULE 2. Use commas after introductory clauses, phrases, and words that come before the main clause.Introductory clauses:EXAMPLES:While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor. Introductory phrases (note how the main subject and verb follow the comma):EXAMPLES:Having finished the test, he left the room.To get a seat, you had better come early.After the test but before lunch, I went jogging. Introductory words:EXAMPLES:Well, perhaps he meant no harm.Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.However, you may not be satisfied with the results. RULE 3. Use commas in the middle of a sentence to separate nonessential clauses, phrases, and words. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.EXAMPLES:Clause:That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.Phrase:The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.Word:This time, however, you seem to be falling behind.*NOTE: To determine if a clause, phrase, or word is essential, ask yourself if the sentence still makes sense if you leave it out. If it does, then it’s nonessential and should be set off with a pair of commas. Nonessential elements are sometimes called parenthetical. RULE 4. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.EXAMPLES:The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.*NOTE: The comma before the and at the end of a list is called an Oxford Comma; some writers choose to leave off the final (Oxford) comma in a series. For example, in both of the sentences above, the last comma could be left off and still be correct (just be sure to be consistent in your usage). RULE 5. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal status in describing the noun.EXAMPLES:He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate adjectives)Your cousin has an easy, happysmile. (coordinate adjectives)They lived in a white frame house. (*non-coordinate adjectives, so no comma)*NOTE: To determine if two adjectives are coordinate, ask yourself if the sentence still makes sense if you reverse the order of adjectives or put and between them. If so, then it needs a comma. For instance, in the example above, a white frame house wouldn’t make sense if we wrote instead, a frame white house or a white and frame house. RULE 6. Use commas to indicate speech or a quotation.EXAMPLES:John said without emotion, “I’ll see you tomorrow.”“I completed the assignment,” she answered.According to E.B. White in The Elements of Style,“When you say something, make sure you have said it.” A FINAL RULE to consider is to use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.EXAMPLE:To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol. (*the comma here eliminates potential misreading of George Harrison, the late guitarist for The Beatles.)Let’s eat, Grandma. (*the comma here saves Grandma from being eaten.) As you read, revise, and edit your writing, do so with comma correctness in mind. It’s also important to remember that commas have much to do with sentence structure and wording, which is always in the writer’s control. Additional Resources“Notes on Punctuation,” a guide from writer Lewis Thomas on using commas effectively and how to word a lengthy sentence without overusing commas“Punctuation Matters,” a guide from Technical Writing Essentials.Chapter 8.11 Punctuation: PossessionThere are two main ways to show ownership in writing: using a possessive apostrophe or using a possessive pronoun. This section will define and provide examples of each.Possessive ApostrophesApostrophes are signals telling the reader that a word is either possessive or a contraction. As a technical communicator, it’s important to understand the difference between the two. Apostrophes are used to form contractions to indicate omitted letters, such as couldn’t (the apostrophe indicates the missing letter o ). Apostrophes are also used to signal omitted numbers, such as The ‘80s (the apostrophe indicates the missing numbers 19). But this has nothing to do with apostrophes used to show possession.To use an apostrophe to show ownership, you simply add apostrophe s or s apostrophe to a noun, depending on whether it’s singular or plural.Singular Possessive Apostrophe: to indicate singular ownership, add apostrophe s:EXAMPLES:The car’s new tires were next to John’s workstation. (there is only one car and one John, so we simply add an apostrophe s to indicate singular ownership).The woman’s home needed refurnishing, so she used last week’s pay to go furniture shopping.Plural Possessive Apostrophe: to indicate plural ownership, add s apostrophe.EXAMPLES:The cars’ new tires were stacked up next to the mechanics’ workstations (in this case there is more than one car and more than one mechanic, so we would use s apostrophe).The roommates’ house needed repairs, so they all agreed to use some of the extra months’ rent money they’d saved to go furniture shopping.Joint and Individual Ownership: to show joint ownership, only the last noun/name has the apostrophe s. To show individual ownership, each noun/name has an apostrophe s. EXAMPLES: Joint: Mary, Beth, Phil, and Bill’s house.Individual: Mary’s, Beth’s, Phil’s, and Bill’s houses.Nouns Ending is S: When making a possessive of a singular noun that already ends in s, writers can make the possessive by adding ’s to the word; however, some writers and editors argue that there’s no need to include an s after the apostrophe, since the apostrophe already tells readers that the word is possessive. Others argue that you should drop the final s only on words of several syllables but retain it on short words. Since there is no agreement on this, must make your own choice. Regardless of which option you choose, be consistent.EXAMPLES: Table 8.11 shows three proper nouns that end in s, each of which is correct:TABLE 8.11NAMEAPOSTROPHE SS APOSTROPHEJamesJames’sJames’JonesJones’sJones’JesusJesus’sJesus’Possessive PronounsPronouns, such as him, her, they, and them are stand-ins for proper nouns; in other words, they refer to someone or something specific without using the proper noun or name. Possessive pronouns show ownership. Some are used alone, while others are used to modify or describe a noun.Used alone: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, whose EXAMPLE: That computer is hers. That car is mine.Used as modifier: my, your, his, her, its, ours, their, whoseEXAMPLE: That is her computer. The car needs its clutch replaced.*Note that none of the possessive pronouns uses an apostrophe to show ownership. Pay extra attention to your use of possessive pronouns, as several of them sound like some commonly-used contractions. For example, watch your use of the following commonly confused possessive pronouns and contractions: Your/You’re, Its/It’s, Their/They’re, and Whose/Who’s. Additional Resources“Basic Rules of Punctuation,” a resource on general punctuation rules from Professional Communication.“Apostrophes” from OER Service’s Technical Writing Chapter 8.12 Punctuation, Grammar, & Mechanics ResourcesAdditional Resources for Punctuation, Grammar, and MechanicsThe following is a list of resources to provide further instruction in writing style and writing rules.“Basic Rules of Punctuation“ from OER Services’ Technical Writing“Punctuation, Mechanics, Capitalization, and Spelling Introduction” from OER Services’ Technical Writing“Mechanics” from the Purdue OWL“Grammar” from the Purdue OWL“Punctuation” from the Purdue OWL“An Introduction to Punctuation” from ThoughtCo.com“Fragments and Run-ons” from the UNC Writing Center“Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes” from the UNC Writing Center“Word Choice” (diction) from the UNC Writing Center“Verb Tenses” from the UNC Writing CenterPART IXAssignments and ExercisesThe following pages consist of assignments and exercises for each chapter of the book. These are designed to provide varied opportunities to practice many of the concepts we have discussed throughout this textbook.*NOTE: Your instructor may choose to supplement this textbook with their own materials and assignments; if so, you might still find these assignments and exercises useful, especially if you’re anticipating a career as a technical communicator or in a field that requires a significant amount of technical writing.Chapter CH 1 Exercises: Analyzing Technical WritingExercise 1 (group)Locate some examples of what you consider to be technical writing. These may include correspondence, journal articles, lab reports, web pages, or advertisements. In small groups with other classmates, discuss how the documents reflect the characteristics of technical writing. After your group has analyzed the document(s), present your findings to the class to explain how it meets the characteristics of a technical document. Exercise 2 (individual)Locate an instruction manual for a product you own (if you can’t locate the original print edition that came with the product, you may be able to find it on the manufacturer’s website or other sites devoted to manuals). Analyze it and compare it to what you’ve learned so far about technical writing:What do you notice? Is the language clear?Is the document organized to be logical and easy to navigate?Could there be improvement?Write up a brief (two-to-three paragraph) description of your analysis.Chapter CH 2 Exercises: Cultural UnderstandingExercise 1Culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people. The purpose of this exercise is to increase your cultural awareness as it pertains to technical writing and to practice assessing audience, purpose, and situation.Your task for this exercise is to find and analyze a piece of technical writing, either a printed document or a specific web page, that you think might benefit from a revision with an eye toward being more cultural sensitivity and inclusive.Be sure to read the previous chapters on Cultural Understanding and Culturally Sensitive Terminology and think about the following questions as you assess the document:Who is this document’s intended audience?What do you notice about its writing style?Would you change the writing style? If so, how would it differ and what effect would it have?Would you change the layout or format? If so, in what ways? If not, why not?What else might you do?If you were to change the intended audience to a different demographic with different cultural norms, what about this document would you have to revise?Explain your reasoning for these revisions (either in a small group classroom discussion or in a written memo) and how making them would help the document or web page be more culturally aware and sensitive.Exercise 2For this exercise, you will be comparing two websites. The first website you examine should be one designed for a U.S. audience and the second should be the equivalent (or similar) site designed for an audience in another country. For example, you might examine how Toyota’s site is designed for American audiences compared to how its site is designed for Japanese or German audiences.In a small group classroom discussion or brief memo, consider the following:What is the website’s purpose (to sell products, to provide information, to promote a religious or political agenda, to provide a service, such as a site dedicated to music reviews, etc.).Analyze and describe the audience for each website. How do they differ?How does each site appeal to its respective audience? Do the sites differ in visual layout or content? If so, how?Are the sites similar in any ways?Do you notice any differences in writing style?Does one site have more text than the other?Are the sites effective in targeting multiple audiences? Why or why not?Chapter CH 2 Assignment: Cultural Research*Be sure to read the previous chapters on Cultural Understanding and Culturally Sensitive Terminology before completing this assignment.For this assignment, your task is to identify a culture to study, preferably one that you are relatively unfamiliar with, and write a brief (750-1,500-word) analysis of that culture.Some of you may begin with a central question that guides your exploration. For example, you might ask how members of a particular culture see themselves within the larger societal community. Others of you will reach your central research question once you’ve begun your research.Selecting a Culture or CommunityThere are many different ways of looking at culture and community. For example, an organization, a company or workplace, a boxing gym, a book club, an industry, a group of welding students, a yoga class, a community arts center, a local church group, an auto repair shop, and a poetry club are all examples of different types of communities that have their own unique cultural characteristics.New communities are better than familiar onesThere is some debate among experts over whether a person can truly study a community to which they belong. The problem, some argue, with studying your own community or culture is that you are less able to be objective and unbiased when you gather data. So rather than discovering why and how people behave as they do within a certain culture, your involvement with that culture may blind you to new insights. You may end up merely writing what you already know and believe. Try to explore a community (or some aspect of a community) that you don’t know much about but are interested in learning.*NOTE: Because you may experimenting with this kind of research for the first time, your instructor may allow you to study a community to which you already belong. Be sure to confirm this before proceeding.Helpful Questions to Narrow the Research Scope Asking the following questions can help you narrow the scope of your research:What specific culture or community will you study?Why is the culture worth studying?What religious, economic, or political forces define the culture?How would you describe the environment of the culture?What relationships can you define between the culture you are studying and the dominant culture?What literature about the culture is available? Do you know any people who used to be members of the culture whom you could interview to help develop a sense of what to look for once you enter the community?Do you have a viable way of entering the culture?Do you have access to inside written documents, such as correspondence or research studies, that can provide you with additional information?What methods will you use to gather facts? Will you, for example, use any questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests?What schedule do you plan to follow? How much time do you allow for data collection or for data interpretation, and how much time do you allow for compiling your research and writing your report? CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Select A Culture." OERCommons.org. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter CH 2 Assignment: Revising/TranslatingPart of a technical writer’s job is to translate highly technical writing and complex concepts for laypeople (non-experts). Technical writing is often a form of communication between a specialist and a non-specialist (layperson), though sometimes it is between a specialist in one field and an expert in a different discipline.For this assignment, you (or your group) will practice translating complex information for a non-technical audience by rewriting the excerpt down below. The excerpt comes from a scholarly article written for a highly-technical audience. Your job is to make it understandable to most readers.*Before you begin this assignment, make sure you have read the previous sections on Audienceand Purpose.For this assignment, you (or your group) should:Think about what you’ve learned so far about Audience and Purpose.Your audience is a general adult audience, and your purpose is to summarize the main point(s) of the article.Scholarly Excerpt about Oceanic White Tip Sharks“All female specimens less than 180 cm TL with thin ovaries, threadlike uteri and oviduct were considered immature. The onset of sexual maturity in females appears to occur at a TL of 185 cm TL. The smallest mature female specimen was found in April 2005, and was 190 cm TL and 43 kg in weight. The specimens greater than > 200 cm TL had well-developed uteri and were considered mature. The logistic curve describing the relationship between P and TL was estimated to be P = 1/e−0.3213(TL−193.4) (n = 89, P < 0.05) (Figure 5b). The size at 50% maturity with 95% CI was estimated to be 193.4 ± 0.97 cm TL for females. Only two pregnant females were examined in detail in this study. A pregnant female collected in September 2005 (222 cm TL, 86 kg) had 10 embryos (five for each uterus, 56–64 cm TL, 1600–2600 g) and 10 unfertilized ova (0.4–0.8 mm (n = 6), and 10–11 mm (n = 4)) in the ovary. Another pregnant female (217 cm TL, 70 kg) collected in December 2005 had 11 embryos (five and six for left and right uterus, respectively, 19.5–22.3 cm TL, 88–148 g) and six unfertilized ova in the ovary. One mature but non-pregnant female (198 cm TL, 47 kg) also collected in December 2005 had 14 ova ranging from 0.8 to 24 mm in diameter with the majority being 8–14 mm (n = 10). The largest embryo (64 cm TL) with teeth and similar morphology to the freeswimming individual was considered to be a nearterm embryo. The umbilical scar on the smallest freeswimming individual (93 cm TL) was healed, suggesting it was not a newly born individual. Hence, the size at birth of the oceanic whitetip shark was suggested to be at least 64 cm TL based on our observations.”The entire article is available here: White Tip Sharks (PDF)*This assignment was created by Sonney Wolfe, LBCC Instructor.Chapter CH 3 Exercise: Formatting AnalysisExamine the formatting in Figure 3.1 below and list some of characteristics that adhere to the academic writing format requirements you are familiar with. It does not matter if you cannot read the text; simply examine the formatting.Figure 3.1Now examine the document in Figure 3.2. What differences do you notice? List some of the features that differ from the academic writing sample above. Consider why typical readers of technical writing would find these features desirable. Which document would you rather read? Explain why. Figure 3.2CHAPTER ATTRIBUTION INFORMATION"Readability." Technical Writing Essentials. [License: CC BY 4.0]Chapter CH 3 Assignment: Creating an InfographicThis assignment will help you to create an infographic, which is a visual representation of your research.Guidelines for creating an effective infographic:Make a claim: a good infographic should state or imply a claim and present evidence to support that claim.Use accurate data: once you state your claim, find evidence to support it (quoted material, statistics, findings, etc.).Write concisely: an infographic’s text should be clear, concise, and brief.Don’t present too much information: readers may be turned off or intimidated by too much text or or a graphic is too packed with images to be effective.Finalize and review your research: this will help you with the next step.Familiarize yourself with the data and the different ways to present it, and then choose the most appropriate visual representation for your project.Choose colors and fonts that match or seem appropriate to your overall message.Consider creating two different versions of your infographic so that you may choose the most effective one for your specific audience and purpose.Cite all your image sources. Additional ResourcesHere are a few sites to help you create your infographic:Piktochart: a web-based infographic creator with many themes, graphics, and user-friendly editing tools.Hubspot: offers several free templates for creating infographics in PowerPoint.Canva: a web-based infographic creator with several free templatesVenngage: offers free options for creating infographicsVisme: free online tool for making infographics Chapter CH 4 Assignment: Bad News Letter*Be sure to have read the previous sections “Writing Effective Emails” and “Business Letter Types” (‘Bad News Letters,’ specifically) before completing this assignment.Scenario: Customer John Smith has been working with you and your shop (or company/organization) for over ten years. He has ordered this kind of work before, and you have done this kind of work for him before. You thought it was an easy job so you asked a new employee to order the parts needed. You did not check their work because you were busy. Your employee ordered the wrong parts.Ordinarily you would have had time to reorder the parts and still complete the order, but because there was an ice storm and the power was out for two days, you no longer have time to reorder parts and get the job done on time. You are going to be late, and you have to let John Smith know.You always communicate with John Smith via email. Your task is to write an email to John Smith explaining why the job will not be completed on time.Feel free to get a little creative by adding details, such as part names, industry-specific language (jargon), etc. You should also consider how you might resolve this issue or compensate John Smith.Chapter CH 5 Assignment: Team ProjectCOLLABORATION: team project, meeting facilitation, and presentation The purpose of this assignment is to practice and improve the teamwork skills necessary in today’s workplaces.ASSIGNMENT OVERVIEW:Team Project:The theme of your project must center around one of the options below:OPTION 1: In your teams, come up with an idea for a new product or service and pitch this idea to the class in your final presentation. Your project should focus on what the product/service does, why the consumer should buy your product/service, what makes it unique, why we should fund your product/service, etc. You DO NOT need to actually make this product, though feel free to be creative.OPTION 2: In your teams, suggest an improvement in a workplace (real or made up). Some examples could include hiring a new position, implementing a campaign within the workplace (i.e. recycle more, exercise during lunch, etc.), allowing for a day off to volunteer, etc.OPTION 3: In your teams, suggest an improvement in our community. The community could be Albany, Corvallis, Lebanon, Linn Benton Community College, Oregon State University, etc. This improvement should address a need in the community that your group identifies. Some examples include developing a new park, building a new public building, improving roads or schools, etc. Team Selection:You have the opportunity to create your own team based on the skills you value in accomplishing this assignment. Teams will be about three people in size. You must stay with this team throughout the entirety of the term. If problems arise, try to apply what you’ve learned in Chapter 5 regarding successful collaboration, as well as in Chapter 2’s cultural understanding and culturally-sensitive terminology sections to work through issues before coming to your instructor. Additionally, since this is a professional course, like in all workplaces, if a team member is not pulling their weight after multiple interventions, it is possible to “fire” them from your group. Please note that this is a LAST RESORT option and you must discuss it with your instructor prior to any decision or action.Meeting Materials:Your group will be expected to meet a minimum of three times throughout the term. During these meetings, each group member will serve in one of three roles (listed below). By the end of the term, you will have served in every role and will have turned in documentation for each using the guidelines below. If you miss a meeting or fail to turn in materials for a certain role, you may not make it up during a later meeting.Agenda Creator – Create a typed meeting agenda prior to your meeting to help guide the meeting forward and keep things moving. You will turn in the agenda you created for points. Both of your group members must sign somewhere on the agenda to verify it was used during the meeting. The date, time, and who was in attendance must also be included on the agenda. Agendas ARE NOT the same as meeting minutes. Only include a plan for the meeting, not a detailed description of what was discussed about these topics (see secretary role below).Meeting Facilitator – Facilitators help move a meeting forward, engage those that aren’t participating, and bring everyone back when discussions get off topic. When you are the facilitator, your job is to guide your team through the meeting agenda. After serving as the facilitator, write a brief 1-2 page, double-spaced, reflection on your experience. The reflection should include: What went well when you were facilitator?What was challenging as facilitator?What would you do differently next time? Secretary – The role of secretary is to take meeting minutes. Meeting minutes help track what was discussed during the meeting and serve as reminders for after the meeting. Be sure to indicate on the minutes what decisions were made, when the next meeting is scheduled for, tasks that were assigned, items added for the next meeting, etc. The meeting minutes must be typed.Promotional Materials:In order to pitch your product or service, your team will develop a variety of promotional materials. At a minimum, you must include:At least one printed promotional material; this could include a brochure, poster, printed ad, newsletter, or other publication.At least one digital promotional material such as a homepage/webpage, social media campaign, short commercial, digital advertisement, brief video, etc.One additional promotional material of your choosing (digital or printed).Portfolio:Your portfolio should be a folder of print materials that details what was discussed in your presentation and provides additional information about your project. Your portfolio must include the following:Table of contents—list each item included in your portfolio.1-2 sentence mission statement about the purpose/need your project addresses.1-2 page overview of the project—this should be broad in nature and describe who your overall target audience is, why they would be interested in this idea, and what need it addresses, etc. In other words, save details about individual materials for the description (see below).Description of each item—describe in depth each of the materials created for your project, including print and digital materials. Descriptions should include an overview of the item, the specific target audience, why the item was created, and what is unique about it.At least one printed promotional item(s)—this could include a brochure, poster, printed ad, newsletter, or other publications. If more than one was created, please include copies of all.Peer evaluations for all group members including yourself.Group Presentation: As a group, you will present your project to the class using PowerPoint, Google Slides, or another digital presentation program. Each group member must have an opportunity to present. The group presentation should be 10-15 minutes in length and must include the following:Need/purpose of your project— why did your group choose this idea to create/address?Target audience— who will benefit from your project?Descriptions and visual examples of all promotional materials— be sure to include the materials (digital or hard copy) as well as a description of why each was created.*This assignment was created by Will Fleming and Hailey Adkisson, 2019.Chapter CH 6 Assignment: Annotated BibliographyPreparing an Annotated BibliographySome research projects and assignments require you to complete an annotated bibliography. An annotated bibliography is a useful way to start a research project because it asks you to collect and summarize sources that you might use later in a research paper. Collecting and summarizing sources early in the research process helps you narrow your research topic. The bibliography can also help you evaluate the possible usefulness of source material for later use in a paper.For this assignment, your task is to create an annotated bibliography.What is an annotated bibliography?An annotation is simply a summary of a source, such as an article, book, or other written reference. A bibliography (or ‘Works Cited’ page) is a list of sources on a particular topic. An annotated bibliography, then, is a list of sources on a topic with a brief summary for each.An annotated bibliography has two parts. The first part is the bibliography line (the source citation), which should be formatted according to whichever format you’re using (MLA, APA, or Chicago Style). The second part is the summary paragraph. Both parts taken together are called an entry, and entries are typically organized in alphabetical order according to the bibliography information, such as the last name of an author or the title of a source.When writing a summary of a source, writers should: include the following:a sentence or two describing the author’s credentials, the source’s purpose, and the intended audience;a brief overview of the source content; anda sentence concluding the summary that explains why you think this source is valuable and how you might use it in your project as support.Additional ResourceSample Student Annotated Bibliography(from Indiana University’s Writing Center)Chapter CH 7 Assignment: InstructionsYour task is to write a set of instructions related to your major/discipline or career. Please choose something at which you are an expert (or nearly one) and something that most people would not know how to do. Consider your audience to be intelligent but likely unfamiliar with the process.The main purpose of this assignment is to give you practice in writing instructions, one of the most common types of workplace technical writing. Whether working with office staff, technicians, managers, or executives, technical communicators are frequently called upon to write instructions, such as specific office procedures, training manuals, and safety protocols.Feel free to look at the sample sets of instructions in this textbook as well as ones found online to help you pick a format and structure—but, of course, your instructions must be your own.An important aspect of instructional writing is the use of graphics and design: good instructions contain visuals and are designed to be easy to read and understand. Therefore, another important aspect of this assignment is to improve your skills in the use of visuals in technical documents.*NOTE: Visuals should work to illustrate the writing rather than replacing it; in other words, don’t instruct the reader to complete the step in Figure 1 without also explaining the step in writing.Your instructions should include both of the following:A brief reflective memo:Briefly summarize your process of developing and researching your instructions.Briefly summarize your audience and purpose.Discuss how you assessed your audience’s needs before writing your instructions. What did they already know? What did you have to explain and why?Describe your formatting and visuals choices.A complete set of printed instructions, including:A clear introductionCaution, warning, safety noticesClear formatting with steps, sections, and subheadingsVisuals where appropriate (*be sure to properly cite your visuals)A conclusionChapter CH 7 Assignment: Technical DescriptionsA technical description is a part-by-part explanation of an item. Technical descriptions provide users information about a product’s features and capabilities and explain how that product works. Technical communication relies heavily on descriptions for a variety of documents, such as manuals, procedures, reports, and white papers.For this assignment, your task is to write a technical description of an item, including what it is, what it does, and how it works.Step 1: Choose an item that performs a task. Choose something that provides a challenge but is also manageable. Some examples include: a flash drive, a lawn mower engine, an air-impact wrench, an app or operating system (Android, iOS, Windows), a musical instrument, or any other item(s) you can think of that does something.*NOTE: Be sure to be objective in your description; in other words, keep your opinions about the item to yourself.Step 2: Research the item. Find out what the parts are called and what task(s) the item performs. Note the terminology used, and make use of this terminology in your description (be sure to cite your sources when necessary).Step 3: Define your audience. Are you writing to the general public or to a specific audience? What does your audience know already? What do they need to know? Why should they care?Step 4: Write a description of the item (350-500 words). Successful descriptions will include:A clear technical definition (written in your own words), which is a one to three-sentence definition of what the item is: The Call-o-Matic 6000 is a…;A discussion of the item’s purpose and importance (or context);An overview of the item’s appearance (size, weight, color, etc.), including its major components;A logically-organized description—organized either spatially (moving from top to bottom or front to back, for example) or by function (looking at the item’s different components or features or looking at what the item does overall);A clear understanding of the relationship of each of the components to the others (if applicable);A clear sense of the intended audience; andClear and concise writing throughout.*NOTE: No visual aids should be used for this assignment.Chapter CH 7 Assignment: ProposalYour task is to write a proposal that in some way identifies, addresses, and seeks to solve a problem. This problem can be in the workplace, at our college, in your neighborhood, in your community, or in a specific organization. It’s important that the project address a real issue or problem; keep this in mind as you decide on a topic or area of interest.Generally speaking, you’re looking for an opportunity to solve a problem, fill a need, or make an improvement, and your proposal should be geared to a specific audience.Proposal ProcessStep 1: Begin by identifying a topic. Most students choose something that interests them and that might bring about a change they’d like to see.Here are some strategies for finding a good topic:If you work, think about how your work environment, work processes/procedures or other aspects of your work life that could be improved, or how you might help to solve a particular problem that you, your organization/company, and/or its employees face.If you have a connection with another organization on a regular basis (for example, being a college student, having kids in school, or doing volunteer work somewhere), think about improvements or opportunities for change you might see there.Think about your day-to-day life in your neighborhood or community: how easy or difficult is it to access services? Are there traffic or safety concerns? What about educational or recreational opportunities for kids or adults?Step2: Keep in mind that you need to have a specific and real audience and situation in mind. You need to also be familiar with this audience and situation in some way (or have the ability to do enough research to get this done quickly and accurately).Step3: Think about how to develop your project as though you are actually submitting it to your intended audience. Many students do actually end up submitting these documents to their intended audiences, though this is not an assignment requirement. You should not try to write this for a hypothetical or fictional audience or situation, nor should you fictionalize anything about yourself or the situation. Write this from your actual perspective to an actual audience.Some general proposal ideas:To implement new programs in workplaces: inventory management, conflict mediation, improvements to client services, ethics programs, etc.To address traffic problems (or other infrastructure issues) in your communityTo implement new programs or create new services in communitiesStep 4: Choose a format/layout for your proposal (see textbook examples for ideas) and decide what you will need in terms of structure, including headings, subheadings, and/or sections.Your proposal should:Demonstrate clear, concise, and direct writing;Include at least one relevant visual component (graph, chart, diagram, table, illustration, photograph, etc.);Involve research (this can include observations, personal experience or knowledge, surveys, personal interviews, in addition to traditional library, database, or internet research) with proper MLA or APA citations;Address a real problem or need for an actual audience who might actually read, benefit, and/or act based on your findings; andUse a recognizable and logical structure, including, at the very least, an introduction, body points, and a conclusion.The final proposal should be substantial in scope but also manageable enough to complete in the time allotted. Please see your instructor if you have further questions, need help choosing a topic, want to discuss your topic or want to discuss your approach.Chapter CH 8 Exercise: Clarity & ConcisenessRevise the following five sentences to be clearer and more concise:I am in receipt of your memo requesting an increase in pay and am of the opinion that it is not merited at this time due to the fact that you have worked here for only one month.We hope to convey the following to our employees: a familiarization with the company’s policies, teaching about procedures, and to know what they should do to file complaints if they have any.It is expected that the new schedule will be likely announced by the company within the next day.In this meeting, our intention is to acquire a familiarization with this equipment so that we might standardize the replacement of obsolete machinery throughout our entire work environment.In lieu of further discussion, we want to state in the affirmative that what transpired was due to the fact that the vehicle had insufficient braking capabilities to avoid the collision.Chapter CH 8 Exercise: Sentence Types*NOTE: This activity is designed to be completed once you have a draft of your technical document, report, or proposal. I. Examine one or two paragraphs of your assignment draft:Indicate which paragraph you are examining (provide the page and paragraph number).Listthe sentence types you use in this paragraph (use the Sentence Structure page to help you identify the four sentence types). II. Answer the following two questions:What sentence types do you tend to use most often (simple, compound. etc.)?What sentence types do you use least often or not at all? III.Re-write at least three sentences:Identify at least three different sentences in your paper that could benefit from using different sentence patterns. For example, you might have a compound sentence that might be better expressed as two simple sentences. Briefly discuss your choices and reasons. For example, you might discuss why one sentence type is preferable to another for this particular rhetorical situation.1: Original sentence:Sentence revision:2. Original sentence:Sentence revision:3: Original sentence:Sentence revision:PK
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